Table 1. Electrical Conductivity of Carbon Materials Derived from Lignocellulosic Precursors Synthesized by the Given Methods and Conditionsa.
| precursor | synthesis method | system morphology | thermal stabilization,°C (°C/min, min) | carbonization temperature,°C (°C/min, min) | electrical conductivity, S/cm | ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SKLb, PEO (99:1) | electrospinning | mat | 250 (5, 60) | 800–1000 (10, 60) | 2–5 | (40) |
| Kraft lignin, PAN (56:44) | electrospinning | mat | 250 (10, 120) | 600–1400 (10, 30) | 0–21.3 | (41) |
| SKLb, CNCc, PEO (100:5:1) | electrospinning | mat | 1000 (10, 60) | 35 | (42) | |
| cellulose acetate | electrospinning | mat | 300 (5, −), 300–600 (10, 60) | 1.4 × 10–3 | (43) | |
| SKLb, PVA (75:25) | electrospinning | mat | 250 (4, 60–120) | 600 (4, 60), 900 (4, 120) | 3.86 | (44) |
| cellulose acetate | electrospinning | mat | 800 (5, 120) | 4.5–10.2 | (45) | |
| bamboo fiber sheets | molding | mat | 1000 (10, 180) | 13 | (46) | |
| filter paper | coating with titanium n-butoxide | mat | 1300 (2, 360) | 1.78 | (47) | |
| MFCf, lignosulfonate (16:84) | film casting | film | 150 (0.5, 60), 400 (0.2,−) | 400–600 (0.5, −), 600–1000 (1, 10) | 95 | (48) |
| CNCc | film casting | film | 240 (1, 480) | 1000 (5,120) | 7.69 | (49) |
| CPe | film casting | film | 600–1400 (5, 60) | 10–6–80 | (33) | |
| MCCd | pressing | disk | 250 (100, 180), 275 (5, 120), 325 (5, 120) | 450 (50, 60), 650–1000 (100, 720) | 0.03–50 | (50) |
| sterile absorbent cotton | sponge | 800 (5, 120) | 0.33 | (51) | ||
| MFCf/lignosulfonate/CPe (14:1:49) | 3D-printing | structured monolithic carbon | 150 (0.5, 60), 400 (0.2, −) | 600 (0.5, −), 900 (1, 10) | 47.8 | (52) |
| wood (poplar) powder | hydrolyzation (precipitate of hydrolysate) | nanoflake | 900 (3, 60) | 5.4 | (53) | |
| pulp mill liquor powder | spray drying | microparticle | 250 (0.01, −) | 500(1, −), 900 (5, −), 2000 (5, 60) | 9.1 × 10–3 | (54) |
| SKLb | melt-spinning | fiber | 120 (10, −), 240 (0.2, −), 250 (1, −) | 1000–1700 (2.5, 5) | 142–191 | (55) |
| eucalyptus tar pitch | melt-spinning | fiber | 250 (0.08, 360) | 1000 (2, 60) | 50 | (56) |
| viscose rayon yarn | coating with boric and phosphoric acid | fiber | 250 (1, 30) | 600–1000 (2, 30) | 3.32 × 10–2 | (57) |
| TOCNF | wet-spinning | fiber | 400 (30, −), 1000 (200, 120) | 33 | (36) | |
| alkaline lignin:TOCNF (40:60) | wet-spinning | fiber | not applied | 900 (2, 60) | 103 | this work |
a
Caution needs to be exerted when comparing the numerical values of the presented properties given that the filaments considered emerge from widely different precursor systems and processes.
b
Softwood kraft lignin (SKL).
c
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC).
d
Microcrystalline cellulose powder (MCC).
e
Cellulose powder (CP).
f
Microfibrillated cellulose (MFC).