Table 5.

Factors affecting the rate of doctor-shopping.

Disease/drug	Reference	Risk factors
Opioid users	Cepeda 2015 [23] Delorme 2016 [22]	Presence of mental health disorders; alcohol dependence; low-income status.
Pain	Chenaf 2016 [20]	Presence of mental health disorders; history of opioid and substance misuse disorders; doctor-shoppers were of younger age and lower income status.
Post-surgery due to nephrolithiasis; opioids.	Kappa 2016 [9]	History of mental illness; prior stone procedures; history of preoperative narcotic misuse; younger age; lower income status; less educated.
Orthopaedic trauma	Morris 2014 [40]	History of preoperative narcotic misuse; concomitant alcohol misuse; less educated.
Benzodiazepines	Okumura 2016 [48]	Multiple chronic conditions.
Insomnia	Lu 2015 [14]	Greater number of comorbidities; chronic diseases; younger age; high socioeconomic status.
Hepatocellular carcinoma	Hsieh 2013 [47]	Hepatitis B carriers; recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma; younger age; female.
Overactive bladder	Siu 2014 [33]	Negative treatment experiences.
Overweight	Gudzune 2013 [37]	Greater number of comorbidities; mental health diagnosis; diabetes mellitus diagnosis.
TCM users	Lin 2015 [46]	Presence of catastrophic illness; history of hospital admission; acupuncture; trauma; dislocation; low income.
Outpatient clinic	Lo 1994 [10]	Presence of chronic or acute conditions; persistent symptoms.
Primary care	Norton 2011 [30]	Presence of psychiatric and mental disorders.
Primary care	Safran 2001 [38]	Poor doctor–patient relationship.
General medicine	Lee 2011 [41]	Presence of cancer and other chronic conditions.
General medicine	Sato 1999 [31]	Duration of illness; presence of psychiatric disorders; perceived poor and deteriorating health condition; less educated.
General medicine	Sorbero 2003 [36]	Multiple comorbid conditions; history of drug/alcohol misuse; younger age; female.

TCM, traditional Chinese medicine users.