Table 4. Stepwise Regression Results – Parenting Behavior.

Specification	Child-Report		Parent-Report
	Physical aggression	Psychological aggression	Physical aggression	Psychological aggression
1. Mixed effects: No covariates
Perceived material deprivation	0.092** (0.028)	0.075** (0.028)	0.168** (0.030)	0.237** (0.031)
Income ($10,000)	−0.007 (0.006)	0.003 (0.006)	−0.024** (0.006)	−0.011(0.006)
2. Mixed effects: Controlling for sociodemographics
Perceived material deprivation	0.086** (0.028)	0.077** (0.028)	0.159** (0.030)	0.233** (0.031)
Income ($10,000)	−0.003 (0.006)	−0.001 (0.006)	−0.014* (0.007)	−0.005 (0.006)
3. Mixed effects: Controlling for sociodemographics and parent psychosocial characteristics
Perceived material deprivation	0.080** (0.028)	0.071* (0.028)	0.143** (0.030)	0.207** (0.030)
Income ($10,000)	−0.003 (0.006)	−0.002 (0.006)	−0.013* (0.006)	−0.005 (0.006)
4. Mixed effects: Controlling for sociodemographics, parent psychosocial characteristics, and lagged child behavior
Perceived material deprivation	0.071* (0.036)	0.060 (0.034)	0.100** (0.037)	0.154** (0.036)
Income ($10,000)	−0.001 (0.008)	0.006 (0.007)	−0.008 (0.008)	−0.000 (0.008)
5. Fixed effects: Controlling for sociodemographics, parent psychosocial characteristics, and lagged child behavior
Perceived material deprivation	0.051 (0.052)	0.002 (0.050)	0.028 (0.048)	0.094* (0.045)
Income ($10,000)	0.004 (0.011)	−0.003 (0.011)	−0.011 (0.011)	−0.006 (0.011)

Note: All models control for country, wave, and country-wave fixed effects. Fixed effects specification also includes parent and family fixed effects. Coefficients presented in SD units. Robust standard errors in parentheses.

^**p<0.01,

^*p<0.05