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Cell characterization and manipulation inside an ESEM and SEM. (a) Cell stiffness measurement. Adapted from Ref. 90. (b–d) Cell–substrate and cell–cell adhesion force determination. Adapted from Refs 89,95 and reprinted with IOP permission from Ref. 96. (e) Intracellular electrical measurement for viability testing. Adapted from Ref. 36. (f) Single cell cutting. Reprinted with IOP permission from Ref. 94. (g1–g3) Chromatin extraction process. Adapted from Ref. 37.
