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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2020 Jan 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Am Geriatr Soc. 2018 Nov 24;67(1):128–132. doi: 10.1111/jgs.15659

Table 2:

Association of PIP and all-cause mortality, fatal opioid overdose, and non-fatal opioid overdose in Massachusetts, from 2011-2015, by age.

All-Cause Mortality
AOR (95% CI)
Fatal Opioid Overdose*
AOR (95% CI)
Non-Fatal Opioid Overdose
AOR (95% CI)
Age 18-49 Age 50+ Age 18-49 Age 50+ Age 18-49 Age 50+
Number of PIP
No PIP REF REF REF REF REF REF
One PIP 4.61
(4.34-4.90)
2.11
(2.07-2.15)
4.80
(4.29-5.37)
5.93
(4.79-6.76)
1.81
(1.72-1.92)
2.25
(2.12-2.39)
Two PIP 8.87
(8.27-9.51)
4.13
(4.02-4.24)
8.10
(7.09-9.27)
10.68
(8.86-12.88)
2.39
(2.22-2.58)
4.06
(3.78-4.36)
Three or More PIP 14.95
(13.89-16.09)
7.69
(7.42-7.97)
13.80
(12.04-15.80)
18.61
(15.35-22.57)
3.10
(2.84-3.38)
5.36
(4.93-5.83)
Specific PIP Subtypes§
High Dose (>100 MME 3+ months) 3.59
(3.34-3.87)
2.70
(2.63-2.78)
1.96
(1.70-2.25)
2.53
(2.12-3.03)
1.58
(1.45-1.72)
2.77
(2.58-2.97)
Co-prescription with Benzodiazepine (overlap 3+ months) 2.84
(2.66-3.03)
1.47
(1.44-1.50)
4.54
(4.03-5.10)
4.52
(3.83-5.34)
1.51
(1.42-1.60)
1.97
(1.86-2.10)
Multiple (4+) prescribers 2.05
(1.91-2.20)
1.68
(1.64-1.73)
1.46
(1.28-1.68)
1.29
(1.07-1.57)
1.37
(1.28-1.47)
1.23
(1.14-1.33)
Multiple (4+) pharmacies 0.87
(0.79-0.96)
1.39
(1.32-1.47)
1.60
(1.36-1.88)
1.59
(1.25-2.02)
1.47
(1.34-1.62)
1.30
(1.16-1.44)
No documented pain diagnosis 3.79
(3.50-4.10)
2.78
(2.71-2.84)
2.72
(2.30-3.22)
2.64
(2.15-3.24)
1.50
(1.32-1.71)
1.15
(1.02-1.30)

AOR: Adjusted Odds Ratio; CI: Confidence Interval; MME: Milligram morphine equivalents.

*

Every fatal overdose, by definition, is also an all-cause mortality.

For non-fatal overdose, patients are only considered to have been exposed to PIP if the exposure occurred before the outcome.

None, one, two, or three or more out of the five types of PIP mentioned above. Controlling for sex, ZIP code level poverty, depression, and alcohol use disorder.

§

Controlling for sex, ZIP code level poverty, depression, alcohol use disorder, and the other four PIP variables.