Table 2.

Obesity-related health risks and complications

Metabolic complications  Diabetes, insulin resistance  Dyslipidaemia  Metabolic syndrome  Hyperuricaemia, gout  Low-grade inflammation

Cardiovascular disorders  Hypertension  Coronary heart disease (CHD)  Congestive heart failure Stroke  Venous thromboembolism

Respiratory disease  Asthma  Hypoxemia  Sleep apnoea syndrome  Obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS) (Pickwickian syndrome)

Cancers  Oesophagus, small intestine, colon, rectum, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, kidney, leukaemia, multiple myeloma, and lymphoma  In women: endometrial, cervix uteri, ovary, breast cancer after menopause  In men: prostate

Osteoarthritis (knee) and an increase in pain in the weight bearing joints

Gastro intestinal  Gallbladder disease  Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) or non-alcoholic steato-hepatitis (NASH) Gastro-esophageal reflux  Hernia

Urinary incontinence

Reproductive health  Menstrual irregularity, infertility, hirsutism, polycystic ovaries  Miscarriage  Gestational diabetes, hypertension, preeclampsia,  Macrosomia, foetal distress, malformation (i.e. neural tube defect)  Dystocia and primary caesarean section

Miscellaneous  Idiopathic intracranial hypertension  Proteinuria, nephrotic syndrome  Skin infection  Lymphoedema  Complications from anaesthesia  Periodontal disease

Psychological and social consequences  Low self-esteem  Anxiety and depression  Stigmatisation  Discrimination in employment, college acceptance, job earning etc.

^*The specific levels of risk associated with obesity vary with age, gender, ethnicity and social conditions.