Table 3. Included studies examining age differences (children vs. adolescents) in balance performance in youth.
| References | No. of subjects; sex; age [years (range or mean ± SD)]; n | Balance test parameter; outcome | Results SMDba (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|
| An et al. [41] | 39; F (15), M (24); 7–14 | sSSB: one-legged stance, dominant leg, firm surface, eyes open; time in balance (60 s maximum) | 7-9- vs. 12-14-year-olds: 0.92 (0.25, 1.59) |
| 7-9-year-olds; 19 | |||
| 12-14-year-olds; 20 | |||
| Barozzi et al. [42] | 289; F (115), M (174); 6–14 | sSSB: 52-s two-legged stance, barefoot, eyes open, firm surface; sway velocity (mm/s) | 6- vs. 13-year-olds: 2.12 (1.43, 2.81) |
| 7- vs. 13-year-olds: 1.82 (1.29, 2.35) | |||
| 6-year-olds; 20 | 8- vs. 13-year-olds: 1.05 (0.56, 1.54) | ||
| 7-year-olds; 43 | 9- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.93 (0.40, 1.46) | ||
| 8-year-olds; 38 | 10- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.92 (0.45, 1.39) | ||
| 9-year-olds; 27 | 11- vs. 13-year-olds: 1.73 (1.14, 2.32) | ||
| 10-year-olds; 45 | 12- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.44 (-0.01, 0.89) | ||
| 11-year-olds; 29 | |||
| 12-year-olds; 41 | 6- vs. 14-year-olds: 1.97 (1.07, 2.87) | ||
| 7- vs. 14-year-olds: 2.07 (1.29, 2.85) | |||
| 13-year-olds; 35 | 8- vs. 14-year-olds: 1.38 (0.65, 2.11) | ||
| 14-year-olds; 11 | 9- vs. 14-year-olds: 1.19 (0.43, 1.95) | ||
| 10- vs. 14-year-olds: 1.37 (0.66, 2.08) | |||
| 11- vs. 14-year-olds: 2.61 (1.69, 3.53) | |||
| 12- vs. 14-year-olds: 0.74 (0.05, 1.43) | |||
| Chivers et al. [43] | 993; N/A; 10–14 | sSSB: one-legged stance, both legs, eyes open, eyes closed; total time in balance (s) | 10- vs. 14-year-olds: 0.63 (0.49, 0.77) |
| 10-year-olds: 507 | |||
| 14-year-olds: 486 | |||
| Condon & Cremin [31] | 495; F (275), M (220); 6–15 | sSSB: one-legged stance, dominant leg, firm surface, eyes open; time in balance (s) | 6-7- vs. 12-15-year-olds: 2.33 (2.02, 2.64) |
| 8-9- vs. 12-15-year-olds: 1.37 (1.12, 1.62) | |||
| 6-7-year-olds; 125 | 10-11- vs. 12-15-year-olds: 0.36 (0.09, 0.63) | ||
| 8-9-year-olds; 152 | |||
| 10-11-year-olds; 78 | |||
| 12-15-year-olds; 140 | |||
| Donahoe et al. [36] | 95; F (53), M (42); 7–15 | PB: FR; mean reach (cm) | 7-8- vs. 13-15-year-olds: 0.80 (0.07, 1.53) |
| 9-10- vs. 13-15-year-olds: 0.81 (-0.03, 1.65) | |||
| 7-8-year-olds; 36 | 11-12- vs. 13-15-year-olds: -0.06 (-0.77, 0.65) | ||
| 9-10-year-olds; 15 | |||
| 11-12-year-olds; 34 | |||
| 13-15-year-olds; Mid-PHV; 10 | |||
| Habib et al. [51] | 160; F (80), M (80); 6–13 | PB: FR; mean reach (cm) | 6- vs. 13-year-olds: 1.01 (0.34, 1.68) |
| 7- vs. 13-year-olds: 1.14 (0.45, 1.83) | |||
| 6-year-olds; 20 | 8- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.53 (-0.12, 1,18) | ||
| 7-year-olds; 20 | 9- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.85 (0.18, 1.52) | ||
| 8-year-olds; 20 | 10- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.71 (0.06, 1.36) | ||
| 9-year-olds; 20 | 11- vs- 13-year-olds: 0.28 (-0.35, 0.91) | ||
| 10-year-olds; 20 | 12- vs- 13-year-olds: 0.24 (-0.39, 0.87) | ||
| 11-year-olds; 21 | |||
| 12-year-olds; 20 | |||
| 13-year-olds; 19 | |||
| Hirabayashi & Iwasaki [10] | 79; F (39), M (40); 7–15 | sSSB: SOT; total equilibrium score | 7-8- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 1.71 (0.95, 2.47) |
| 9-10- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 1.37 (0.68, 2.06) | |||
| 7-8-year-olds; 18 | 11-13- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 0.30–0.33, 0.93) | ||
| 9-10-year-olds; 22 | |||
| 11-13-year-olds; 20 | |||
| 14-15-year-olds; Mid-PHV; 19 | |||
| Itzkowitz et al. [52] | 1295; F (743), M (552); 6–13 | PB: TUG; time (s) | 6- vs.13-year-olds: -0.29 (-0.60, 0.02) |
| 7- vs.13-year-olds: -0.31 (-0.62, 0.00) | |||
| 6-year-olds; 244 | 8- vs.13-year-olds: -0.68 (-1.01, -0.35) | ||
| 7-year-olds; 221 | 9- vs.13-year-olds: -0.91 (-1.24, -0.58) | ||
| 8-year-olds; 197 | 10- vs.13-year-olds: -0.89 (-1.22, -0.56) | ||
| 9-year-olds; 203 | 11- vs.13-year-olds: -0.70 (-1.07, -0.33) | ||
| 10-year-olds; 180 | 12- vs.13-year-olds: -0.44 (-0.79, -0.09) | ||
| 11-year-olds; 95 | |||
| 12-year-olds; 110 | |||
| 13-year-olds; Mid-PHV; 45 | |||
| Johnson et al. [44] | 33; N/A; 10.35 ± 3.28 | sSSB: one-legged stance, dominant leg, eyes open; sway velocity in anterior/posterior directions (mm/s) | 8-12- vs. 13-18-year-olds: 0.84 (0.04, 1.64) |
| 8-12-year-olds; 19 | |||
| 13-18-year-olds; 14 | |||
| Khanna et al. [45] | 100; F (35), M (65); 12.47 ± 2.01 | sSSB: BESS; total score | 10-13- vs. 14-17-year-olds: 0.07 (-0.34, 0.48) |
| 10-13-years-olds; 68 | |||
| 14-17-years-olds; 32 | |||
| Menkveld et al. [50] | 60; N/A; 7–16 | dSSB: gait analysis using Electrodynogram and force data collector, walking at self-selected speed; cadence | 7-8- vs. 13-14-year-olds: 2.25 (1.19, 3.31) |
| 9-10- vs. 13-14-year-olds: 0.91 (0.07, 1.75) | |||
| 7-8-year-olds; 12 | 11-12- vs. 13-14-year-olds: 0.50 (-0.32, 1.32) | ||
| 9-10-year-olds; 12 | |||
| 11-12-year-olds; 12 | 7-8- vs. 15-16-year-olds: 2.59 (1.45, 3.73) | ||
| 9-10- vs. 15-16-year-olds: 1.17 (0.29, 2.05) | |||
| 13-14-year-olds; 12 | 11-12- vs- 15-16-year-olds: 1.01 (0.15, 1.87) | ||
| 15-16-year-olds; 12 | |||
| Müller et al. [49] | 5,215; F (2,771), M (2,444); 6–15 | dSSB: gait analysis using VICON, force plates and photo electronic barrier; gait velocity (m/s) | 6- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.32 (0.16, 0.48) |
| 6-year-olds; 977 | 7- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.28 (0.12, 0.44) | ||
| 7-year-olds; 834 | 8- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.16 (0.00, 0.32) | ||
| 8-year-olds; 819 | 9- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.24 (0.08, 0.40) | ||
| 9-year-olds; 711 | 10- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.15 (-0.01, 0.31) | ||
| 10-year-olds; 687 | 11- vs. 13- year-olds: 0.11 (-0.07, 0.29) | ||
| 11-year-olds; 437 | 12- vs. 13-year-olds: 0.09 (-0.09, 0.27) | ||
| 12-year-olds; 364 | |||
| 6- vs. 14-year-olds: 0.31 (0.11, 0.51) | |||
| 13-year-olds; 197 | 7- vs. 14-year-olds: 0.27 (0.07, 0.47) | ||
| 14-year-olds; 109 | 8- vs. 14-year-olds: 0.15 (-0.05, 0.35) | ||
| 15-year-olds; 80 | 9- vs. 14-year-olds: 0.23 (0.03, 0.43) | ||
| 10- vs. 14-year-olds: 0.14 (-0.06, 0.34) | |||
| 11- vs. 14- year-olds: 0.10 (-0.12, 0.32) | |||
| 12- vs. 14-year-olds: 0.08 (-0.14, 0.30) | |||
| 6- vs. 15-year-olds: 0.40 (0.16, 0.64) | |||
| 7- vs. 15-year-olds: 0.36 (0.12, 0.60) | |||
| 8- vs. 15-year-olds: 0.24 (0.00, 0.48) | |||
| 9- vs. 15-year-olds: 0.33 (0.09, 0.57) | |||
| 10- vs. 15-year-olds: 0.24 (0.00, 0.48) | |||
| 11- vs. 15- year-olds: 0.19 (-0.05, 0.43) | |||
| 12- vs. 15-year-olds: 0.18 (-0.06, 0.42) | |||
| Nicolini-Panisson & Donadio [53] | 385; F (199), M (186); 6–18 | PB: TUG; time (s) | 6-9- vs. 14-18-year-olds: 0.82 (0.57, 1.07) |
| 6-9-year-olds; 130 | 10-13- vs. 14-18-year-olds: 0.71 (0.46, 0.96) | ||
| 10-13-year-olds; 129 | |||
| 14-18-year-olds; 126 | |||
| Sheldon [5] | 39; F (22), M (17); 6–19 | sSSB: 60-s two-legged stance, eyes closed; number of squares penetrated by tracing | 6-9- vs. 15-19-year-olds: 2.38 (1.52, 3.24) |
| 6-9-year-olds; 14 | |||
| 15-19-year-olds; 25 | |||
| Steindl et al. [17] | 100; F (50), M (50); 7–16 | sSSB: SOT; total equilibrium score | 7-8- vs. 13-14-year-olds: 1.68 (0.95, 2.41) |
| 9-10- vs. 13-14-year-olds 1.03 (0.36, 1.70) | |||
| 7-8-year-olds; 20 | 11-12- vs. 13-14-year-olds: -0.20 (-0.83, 0.43) | ||
| 9-10-year-olds; 20 | |||
| 11-12-year-olds; 20 | 7-8- vs. 15-16-year-olds: 2.69 (1.81, 3.57) | ||
| 9-10- vs. 15-16-year-olds: 1.84 (1.10, 2.58) | |||
| 13-14-year-olds; 20 | 11-12- vs. 15-16-year-olds: 0.55 (-0.08, 1.18) | ||
| 15-16-year-olds; 20 | |||
| Tringali et al. [46] | 56; F (25), M (31); 6–15 | sSSB: 4 x 12.8-s two-legged stance in Romberg position, eyes open on a force platform; sway velocity (mm/s) | 6-7- vs. 12-13-year-olds: 3.22 (1.91, 4.53) |
| 8-9- vs. 12-13-year-olds: 0.36 (-0.52, 1.24) | |||
| 6-7-year-olds; 14 | 10-11- vs. 12-13-year-olds: 0.06 (-0.80, 0.92) | ||
| 8-9-year-olds; 11 | |||
| 10-11-year-olds; 12 | 6-7- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 6.02 (3.98, 8.06) | ||
| 8-9- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 2.87 (1.58, 4.16) | |||
| 12-13-year-olds; 9 | 10-11- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 1.61 (0.61, 2.61 | ||
| 14-15-year-olds; 10 | |||
| Volkman et al. [54] | 80; F (40), M(40); 7–16 | PB: FR; mean reach (cm) | 7-8- vs. 15-16-year-olds: 1.99 (1.32, 2.66) |
| 11-12- vs. 15-16-year-olds: 0.45 (-0.10, 1.00) | |||
| 7-8-year-olds; 29 | |||
| 11-12-year-olds; 26 | |||
| 15-16-year-olds; 25 | |||
| Walchli et al. [55] | 77; F (38), M (39); 6–15 | sSSB: 15-s Romberg stance, eyes open on a force platform; total sway path (cm) | sSSB |
| 6-7- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 1.25 (0.64, 1.86) | |||
| 6-7-year-olds: 25 | 11-12- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 0.37 (-0.18, 0.92) | ||
| 11-12-year-olds: 27 | |||
| dSSB: 15-s two-legged stance, eyes open on a spinning top (Pedalo Kreisel) placed on force platform; total sway path (cm) | dSSB | ||
| 14-15-year-olds: 25 | 6-7- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 1.18 (0.57, 1.79) | ||
| 11-12- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 0.36 (-0.19, 0.91) | |||
| RB: 15-s two-legged stance, eyes open on swinging platform (Posturomed); total sway path (cm) assessed using VICON | RB | ||
| 6-7- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 1.12 (0.52, 1.71) | |||
| 11-12- vs. 14-15-year-olds: 0.10 (-0.45, 0.64) | |||
| Wolff et al. [47] | 74; N/A; 7–18 | sSSB: 10 x 30-s two-legged stance, barefoot, eyes open; sway velocity (mm/s) | 7-8- vs. 13-14-year-olds: 0.64 (-0.12, 1.40) |
| 9-10- vs. 13-14-year-olds: 0.56 (-0.20, 1.32 | |||
| 7-8-year-olds; 16 | 11-12- vs. 13-14-year-olds: 0.11 (-0.65, 0.87) | ||
| 9-10-year-olds; 16 | |||
| 11-12-year-olds; 15 | 7-8- vs. 15-18-year-olds: 1.05 (0.29, 1.81) | ||
| 9-10- vs. 15-18-year-olds: 0.91 (0.17, 1.65) | |||
| 13-14-year-olds; 12 | 11-12- vs. 15-18-year-olds: 0.38 (-0.35, 1.11) | ||
| 15-18-year-olds; 15 | |||
| Zaino et al. [37] | 27; F (14), M (13); 8–14 | PB: Timed up and down stairs test; time (s) | 8-10- vs. 13-14-year-olds: 1.09 (0.11, 2.07) |
| 11-12- vs. 13-14-year-olds: 0.24 (-0.86, 1.34) | |||
| 8-10-year-olds; 14 | |||
| 11-12-year-olds; 6 | |||
| 13-14-year-olds; 7 | |||
| Zumbrunn et al. [48] | 32; F (17), M (15); 8–18 | sSSB: 5 x 5-s one-legged stance, dominant and non-dominant leg, eyes open; sway velocity (mm/s) | 8-12- vs. 13-18-year-olds: 1.07 (0.31, 1.83) |
| 8-12-year-olds; 19 | |||
| 13-18-year-olds; 13 |
BESS Balance error scoring system, dSSB dynamic steady-state balance, F female, FR Functional-Reach Test, M male, N/A not available, PB proactive balance, SD standard deviation, SMDba between-subject standardized mean difference (i.e., children versus adolescents), SOT Sensory Organization Test, sSSB static steady-state balance, TUG Timed up and go test.