Table 4. Included studies examining sex differences (boys vs. girls) in balance performance in youth.
| References | No. of subjects; sex; age [years (range or mean ± SD)]; maturation; n | Balance test parameter; outcome | Results SMDbs (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Arévalo-Mora et al. [56] | 187; F (97), M (90); 11.15 ± 1.24 | sSSB: 60-s one-legged stance, barefoot, eyes open on beam (3 cm wide, 20 cm above floor); time in balance (s) | 0.09 (-0.20, 0.38) |
| Butz et al. [23] | 140; F (70), M (70); 6–12 | PB: TUG; time (s) | 6-year-olds: 0.57 (-0.33, 1.47) |
| 7-year-olds: 0.26 (-0.62, 1.14) | |||
| 6-year-olds; F (10), M (10) | 8-year-olds: -0.51 (-1.41, 0.39) | ||
| 7-year-olds; F (10), M (10) | 9-year-olds: 0.50 (-0.40, 1.40) | ||
| 8-year-olds; F (10), M (10) | 10-year-olds: -0.19 (-1.07, 0.69) | ||
| 9-year-olds; F (10), M (10) | 11-year-olds: -0.51 (-1.41, 0.39) | ||
| 10-year-olds; F (10), M (10) | 12-year-olds: 0.51 (-0.39, 1.41) | ||
| 11-year-olds; F (10), M (10) | |||
| 12-year-olds; F (10), M (10) | |||
| Davies & Rose [57] | 60; F (30), M (30); 7–18 | sSSB: one-legged stance, dominant leg, eyes open, firm surface; time in balance (20 s maximum) | Pre-PHV: -0.42 (-1.30, 0.46) |
| Mid-PHV: -0.42 (-1.30, 0.46) | |||
| Females | Post-PHV: 0.42 (-0.46, 1.30) | ||
| Pre-PHV; 9.55 ± 0.72; 10 | |||
| Mid-PHV; 12.65 ± 1.36; 10 | |||
| Post-PHV; 16.14 ± 1.09; 10 | |||
| Males | |||
| Pre-PHV; 11.28 ± 1.26; 10 | |||
| Mid-PHV; 14.51 ± 1.32; 10 | |||
| Post-PHV; 17.74 ± 0.85; 10 | |||
| Deshmukh et al. [69] | 350; F (175), M (175); 6–12 | PB: FR; mean reach (cm) | 6-year-olds: -0.67 (-1.24, -0.10) |
| 7-year-olds: -0.76 (-1.33, -0.19) | |||
| 6-year-olds; F (25), M (25) | 8-year-olds: 0.06 (-0.49, 0.61) | ||
| 7-year-olds; F (25), M (25) | 9-year-olds: -0.39 (-0.96, 0.18) | ||
| 8-year-olds; F (25), M (25) | 10-year-olds: -0.16 (-0.71, 0.39) | ||
| 9-year-olds; F (25), M (25) | 11-year-olds: -0.14 (-0.69, 0.41) | ||
| 10-year-olds; F (25), M (25) | 12-year-olds: 0.68 (0.11, 1.25) | ||
| 11-year-olds; F (25), M (25) | |||
| 12-year-olds; F (25), M (25) | |||
| Dufek et al. [65] | 56; F (23), M (33); 14.7 ± 1.5 | dSSB: gait analysis using GAITRite system; gait velocity during preferred walking speed (m/s) | 0.17 (-0.36, 0.70) |
| Eguchi & Takada [21] | 47; F (23), M (24); 8–11 | sSSB: 2 x 30-s one-legged stance, barefoot, dominant leg; mean synthesized | sSSB |
| root mean square (S-RMS) of body accelerations | 9-year-olds: 1.08 (0.18, 1.98) | ||
| sSSB | 11-year-olds: 0.80 (-0.10, 1.70) | ||
| 9-year-olds; F (11), M (11) | |||
| 11-year-olds; F (10), M (11) | dSSB: 2 x 5 m walking, barefoot self-selected speed; mean synthesized root mean square (S-RMS) of body accelerations | dSSB | |
| 9-year-olds: 0.48 (-0.32, 1.28) | |||
| dSSB | 11-year-olds: 0.33 (-0.51, 1.17) | ||
| 9-year-olds; F (12), M (13) | |||
| 11-year-olds: F (11), M (11) | |||
| Geldhof et al. [71] | 99; F (58), M (41); 9.8 ± 0.5 | sSSB: modified clinical test of sensory interaction on balance; sway velocity (°/sec) | sSSB |
| 0.59 (0.18, 1.00) | |||
| dSSB: LOS; sway velocity (°/sec) | dSSB | ||
| -0.04 (-0.43, 0.35) | |||
| Holm & Vøllestad [58] | 368; F (184), M (184); 7–12 | sSSB: one-legged stance on KAT 2000 system; Balance Index | 7-year-olds: 0.70 (0.13, 1.27) |
| 8-year-olds: 0.07 (-0.46, 0.60) | |||
| 7-year-olds; F(19), M (40) | 9-year-olds: 0.43 (-0.06, 0.92) | ||
| 8-year-olds; F (26), M (29) | 10-year-olds: 0.06 (-0.41, 0.53) | ||
| 9-year-olds; F (39), M (29) | 11-year-olds: 0.82 (0.29, 1.35) | ||
| 10-year-olds; F (40), M (29) | 12-year-olds: 0.37 (-0.14, 0.88) | ||
| 11-year-olds; F (29), M (29) | |||
| 12-year-olds; F (31), M (28) | |||
| Holm et al. [66] | 360; F (179), M (181); 7–12 | dSSB: gait analysis using GAITRite; cadence (step/min) at normalized gait velocity of 1.5 m/s | 7-year-olds: 0.00 (-0.59, 0.59) |
| 8-year-olds: -0.46 (-1.03, 0.11) | |||
| 7-year-olds: 52; F (16), M (36) | 9-year-olds: 0.23 (-0.24, 0.70) | ||
| 8-year-olds: 48; F (21), M (27) | 10-year-olds: -0.10 (-0.59, 0.39) | ||
| 9-year-olds: 69; F (38), M (31) | 11-year-olds: -0.40 (-0.95, 0.15) | ||
| 10-year-olds: 68; F (39), M (29) | 12-year-olds: 0.00 (-0.47, 0.47) | ||
| 11-year-olds: 53; F (28), M (25) | |||
| 12-year-olds: 70; F (37), M (33) | |||
| Itzkowitz et al. [52] | 1295; F (743), M (552); 6–13 | PB: TUG; time (s) | 6-year-olds: -0.06 (-0.31, 0.19) |
| 7-year-olds: -0.03 (-0.30, 0.24) | |||
| 6-year-olds; F (120), M (124) | 13-year-olds: 0.14 (-0.57, 0.85) | ||
| 7-year-olds; F (129), M (92) | 8-year-olds: -0.44 (-0.71, -0.17) | ||
| 8-year-olds; F (98), M (99) | 9-year-olds: -0.58 (-0.87, -0.29) | ||
| 9-year-olds; F (130), M (73) | 10-year-olds: -0.26 (-0.55, 0.03) | ||
| 10-year-olds; F (112), M (68) | 11-year-olds: -0.50 (-0.91, -0.09) | ||
| 11-year-olds; F (45), M (50) | 12-year-olds: -0.05 (-0.44, 0.34) | ||
| 12-year-olds; F (74), M (36) | |||
| 13-year-olds; F (35), M (10) | |||
| Khanna et al. [45] | 100; F (35), M (65); 12.47 ± 2.01 | sSSB: BESS; total score | 0.19 (-0.22, 0.60) |
| Laguna Nieto et al. [73] | 18; F (9), M (9); N/A | sSSB: 10-s one-legged stance on a force platform, right leg, barefoot, eyes open; total sway area (mm2) | sSSB |
| 1.77 SE 0.58 (0.63, 2.91) | |||
| PB: moving CoP towards specified targets as fast as possible; accuracy (%) | PB | ||
| 0.41 SE 0.48 (-0.53, 1.35) | |||
| Lee & Lin [59] | 709; F (344), M (365); 9.61 ± 0.68 | sSSB: 3 x 10-s one-legged stance, barefoot, alternately on left and right leg, eyes open on a force platform; mean radius of CoP (cm) | 0.25 (0.19, 0.41) |
| Libardoni et al. [24] | 165; F (82), M (83); 8–12 | sSSB: SOT, balance score in condition one (two-legged stance, eyes open) | 8-year-olds: -0.51 (-1.49, 0.47) |
| 9-year-olds: 0.18 (-0.58, 0.94) | |||
| 10-year-olds: 0.69 (-0.21, 1.59) | |||
| 11-year-olds: -0.14 (-1.16, 0.88) | |||
| 12-year-olds: -0.53 (-1.43, 0.37) | |||
| McKay et al. [72] | 160; F (80), M (80); 10–19 | sSSB: one-legged stance, eyes closed; time in balance (maximum 10 s) | sSSB: 0.21 (-0.10, 0.52) |
| PB: star excursion balance test; distance reached in posteromedial direction (% of leg length) | PB: -0.24 (-0.55, 0.07) | ||
| Michelotti et al. [60] | 52; F (24), M (28); 13.73 ± 1.20 (mean age of | sSSB: 51.2-s two-legged stance on a force platform; sway velocity (mm/s) | 0.37 (-0.18, 0.92) |
| matched intervention group) | |||
| Mickle et al. [61] | 84; F (47), M (37); 8–12 | sSSB: 30-s one-legged stance, dominant leg, eyes open; body sway assessed via Lord sway-meter | 0.53 (0.10, 0.96) |
| Müller et al. [49] | 5,215; F (2,771), M (2,444); 6–15 | dSSB: gait analysis using VICON, force plates and photo electronic barrier; gait velocity (m/s) | 6-year-olds: 0.11 (-0.01, 0.23) |
| 7-year-olds: 0.04 (-0.10, 0.18) | |||
| 6-year-olds; F (522), M (455) | 8-year-olds: -0.08 (-0.22, 0.06) | ||
| 7-year-olds; F (426), M (408) | 9-year-olds: -0.13 (-0.29, 0.03) | ||
| 8-year-olds; F (434), M (385) | 10-year-olds: -0.10 (-0.26, 0.06) | ||
| 9-year-olds; F (391), M (320) | 11-year-olds: -0.06 (-0.26, 0.14) | ||
| 10-year-olds; F (372), M (315) | 12-year-olds: -0.09 (CI -0.29, 0.11) | ||
| 11-year-olds; F (237), M (200) | 13-year-olds: -0.01 (-0.28, 0.26) | ||
| 12-year-olds; F (184), M (180) | 14-year-olds: -0.19 (-0.56, 0.18) | ||
| 13-year-olds; F (99), M (98) | 15-year-olds: 0.13 (-0.32, 0.58) | ||
| 14-year-olds; F (57), M (52) | |||
| 15-year-olds; F (49), M (31) | |||
| Öberg et al. [67] | 54; F (27), M (27); 10–19 | dSSB: gait analysis, walking at normal speed; gait velocity (cm/s) | 10-14-year-olds: -1.43 (-2.35, - |
| 0.51) | |||
| 10-14-year-olds: F (12), M (12) | 15-19-year-olds: -0.70 (-1.44, 0.04) | ||
| 15-19-year-olds: F (15), M (15) | |||
| Peterson et al. [62] | 154; F (74), M (80); 6–12 | sSSB: SOT; total equilibrium score | 6-year-olds: 0.97 (-0.48, 2.42) |
| 7-year-olds: 0.60 (-0.18, 1.38) | |||
| 6-year-olds; F (4), M (5) | 8-year-olds: 0.25 (-0.44, 0.94) | ||
| 7-year-olds; F (14), M (12) | 9-year-olds: 0.38 (-0.29, 1.05) | ||
| 8-year-olds; F (14), M (21) | 10-year-olds: -0.20 (-1.08, 0.68) | ||
| 9-year-olds; F (20), M (16) | 11-year-olds: 0.76 (-0.22, 1.74) | ||
| 10-year-olds; F (9), M (11) | 12-year-olds: 0.02 (-1.29, 1.33) | ||
| 11-year-olds; F (7), M (11) | |||
| 12-year-olds; F (5), M (4) | |||
| Sheehan & Katz [64] | 65; F (36), M (29); 6–9 | sSSB: 6 x 20-s stance (one-legged stance, eyes open, firm surface; one-legged stance eyes closed, firm surface; one-legged stance, eyes open, foam surface; tandem stance, eyes open, firm surface; tandem stance, eyes closed, firm surface; tandem stance, eyes open, foam surface); total CoP path (mm) | 0.61 (0.10, 1.12) |
| Sheehan & Katz [63] | 61; F (28), M (33); N/A | sSSB: 6 x 20-s stance (one-legged stance, eyes open, firm surface; one-legged stance eyes closed, firm surface; one-legged stance, eyes open, foam surface; tandem stance, eyes open, firm surface; tandem stance, eyes closed, firm surface; tandem stance, eyes open, foam surface); total CoP path (mm) | 0.49 (-0.02, 1.00) |
| Smith et al. [22] | 26; F (9), M (17); 8–12 | sSSB: 3 x 30-s two-legged stance, barefoot; sway velocity (mm/s) | 0.55 (-0.27, 1.37) |
| Thevenon et al. [68] | 382; F (154), M (228); 6–12 | dSSB: gait analysis using GAITRite; gait velocity (cm/s) | 6-year-olds: -0.12 (-0.65, 0.41) |
| 7-year-olds: 0.32 (-0.25, 0.89) | |||
| 6-year-olds: 61; F (20), M (41) | 8-year-olds: -0.35 (-0.90, 0.20) | ||
| 7-year-olds: 53; F (20), M (33) | 9-year-olds: 0.22 (-0.31, 0.75) | ||
| 8-year-olds: 56; F (22), M (34) | 10-year-olds: 0.33 (-0.22, 0.88) | ||
| 9-year-olds: 57; F (27), M (30) | 11-year-olds: 0.43 (-0.14, 1.00) | ||
| 10-year-olds: 54; F (20), M (34) | 12-year-olds: 0.87 (0.26, 1.48) | ||
| 11-year-olds: 54; F (20), M (34) | |||
| 12-year-olds: 47; F (25), M (22) | |||
| Yuksel et al. [70] | 280; F (152), M (128); 6–12 | PB: FR; mean reach (cm) | 6-year-olds: 0.48 (-0.15, 1.11) |
| 7-year-olds: 0.42 (-0.23, 1.07) | |||
| 6-year-olds; F (20), M (20) | 8-year-olds: -0.51 (-1.14, 0.12) | ||
| 7-year-olds; F (25), M (15) | 9-year-olds: 0.00 (-0.63, 0.63) | ||
| 8-year-olds; F (20), M (20) | 10-year-olds: -0.21 (-0.84, 0.42) | ||
| 9-year-olds; F (22), M (18) | 11-year-olds: -0.15 (-0.78, 0.48) | ||
| 10-year-olds; F (21), M (19) | 12-year-olds: -0.40 (-1.03, 0.23) | ||
| 11-year-olds; F (23), M (17) | |||
| 12-year-olds; F (21), M (19) |
BESS Balance error scoring system, CoP center of pressure, dSSB dynamic steady-state balance, F female, FR Functional-Reach Test, LOS limits of stability, M male, N/A not available, PB proactive balance, PHV peak height velocity, SD standard deviation, SMDbs between-subject standardized mean difference (i.e., boys versus girls), SOT Sensory Organization Test, sSSB static steady-state balance, TUG Timed up and go test.