Table 3.
Multivariable logistic regression analyses of the association between loneliness and health variables
| Variable (outcome) | Variable response | Model 1: unadjusted odds ratio or beta (95% CI) | Model 2: adjusted odds ratio or beta (95% CI)b | Model 3: adjusted odds ratio or beta (95% CI)c |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Health status | ||||
| Unhealthy self-rated status | No | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| Yes | 1.74 (1.62, 1.87)*** | 1.81 (1.65, 1.99)*** | 1.70 (1.57, 1.84)*** | |
| Cognitive functioning | Scale | − 1.17 (− 1.37 to − 0.96)*** | − 1.18 (− 1.37 to − 0.99)*** | − 0.72 (− 0.90 to − 0.54)*** |
| Chronic medical conditions | None | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| One or more | 1.20 (1.10, 1.31)*** | 1.20 (1.10, 1.31)*** | 1.25 (1.16, 1.35)*** | |
| Hypertensiona | No | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| Yes | 1.10 (1.01, 1.21)* | 1.08 (0.98, 1.20) | 1.07 (0.99, 1.17) | |
| Stroke | No | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| Yes | 1.66 (1.05, 2.63)* | 1.58 (0.99, 2.50) | 1.58 (1.08, 2.29)* | |
| Heart problems | No | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| Yes | 1.33 (1.00, 1.76)* | 1.28 (0.97, 1.70) | 1.15 (0.89, 1.50) | |
| Diabetes | No | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| Yes | 0.89 (0.67, 1.18) | 0.84 (0.63, 1.13) | 1.02 (0.81, 1.29) | |
| Depression symptoms | Scale | 5.34 (5.13 to 5.54)*** | 5.33 (5.13 to 5.53)*** | 5.19 (4.98 to 5.39)*** |
| Sleep disturbance | Scale | 0.35 (0.32 to 0.38)*** | 0.35 (0.32 to 0.38)*** | 0.34 (0.31 to 0.37)*** |
| Sleep related impairment | Scale | 0.71 (0.66 to 0.75)*** | 0.70 (0.66 to 0.75)*** | 0.69 (0.64 to 0.73)*** |
| Low life satisfaction | No | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| Yes | 2.03 (1.87, 2.19)*** | 2.04 (1.89, 2.21)*** | 1.78 (1.64, 1.93)*** | |
| Out-patient visit in the past 4 weeks | No | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| Yes | 1.09 (1.00, 1.18)* | 1.09 (0.98, 1.21) | 1.11 (1.01, 1.21)* | |
| Body mass indexa | Scale | − 0.59 (− 0.77 to − 0.41)*** | − 0.56 (− 0.73 to − 0.39)*** | − 0.35 (− 0.52 to − 0.18)*** |
| Tobacco use | Never/former | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| Current | 1.16 (1.06, 1.77)*** | 1.52 (1.38, 1.68)*** | 1.42 (1.28, 1.58)*** | |
| Physical activity | Moderate/high | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| Inactive | 90.5 (0.83, 0.98)* | 0.90 (0.83, 0.98)* | 0.92 (0.85, 0.98)* | |
| Fruit and vegetable consumption | Frequent | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) | 1 (reference) |
| Infrequent | 1.10 (1.01, 1.24)* | 1.09 (1.00, 1.18)* | 1.04 (0.96, 1.12) | |
| Soft drink consumption | No days/week | Reference | Reference | Reference |
| 1–7 days/week | 1.12 (1.03, 1.21)** | 1.15 (1.05, 1.25)** | 1.20 (1.10, 1.31)*** | |
aIn the sample 18 years and above, b adjusted for age and sex, c adjusted for age, sex, marital status, residence, economic status, education, social capital, and neighbourhood trust