Table 1.
Examples of in vitro studies on cellular toxicity of various carbon-based nanomaterials
| Types | Length | Diameter | Dose | Target cells | Cytotoxicity | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon nanotubes; Nanographite; Carbon black |
1.5 μm; 4.5 μm; — |
9.5 nm; 12 nm; — |
15~120 μg/ml | RAW 264.7 | LDH release, TNF-α production, ROS production | [9] |
| Pristine graphene | 500-1000 nm | 2~3 nm | 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 and 100 μg/ ml | RAW 264.7 | ROS increase, apoptosis by activation of the mitochondrial pathway, activation of the MAPKs (JNK, ERK and p38) and the TGF-beta-related signaling pathways | [14] |
| SWCNTs | — | — | 0.78~200 μg/ml | HEK293 cell | Apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in G1. | [24] |
| Water-soluble fullerene | — | — | — | Human dermal broblasts, HepG2, neuronal human astrocytes | Lactate dehydrogenase release, cellular membrane disruption and lipid peroxidation | [25] |
| SWCNTs; MWCNTs; MWCNTs |
— | 1-2 nm; 10-20 nm; 30-50 nm |
5~100 μg/ml | NR8383 cell | ROS generation and reduced cell viability. | [26] |
| Graphene oxides (GOs); Acid functionalized SWCNTs |
— | 500 nm; 355 nm |
10~50 μg/ml | Peritoneal macrophages | LDH release, decreased autophagic degradation, lysosomal membrane destabilization | [40] |
| SWCNTs | 150 nm | 1~2 nm | 0~50 μg/ml | Mouse peritoneal macrophages | Mitochondrial damage | [41] |
| MWCNT1; MWCNT2 |
13 μm; 5 μm |
40~100 nm; 30 nm |
0.625~10 μg/cm2 | RAW 264.7 | Mitochondrial activity reduction, LDH release | [42] |
| Aci- and tau-MWCNTs | 5~10 μm | 10~20 nm | 0, 5, 20, 40, and 80 μg/ml | RAW 264.7 | Apoptosis via mitochondrial pathway and scavenger receptor | [43] |
| SWCNT; MWCNT |
1~5 μm; 1~2 μm |
< 2 nm; 10~30 nm |
30, 100 and 300 μg/ml | RAW 264.7 | Cell death induced by SWCNT; no cell death induced by MWCNT |
[44] |
| SWNTs; MWNT10; Fullerene |
1 μm; 0.5~40 μm; — |
1.4 nm; 10-20 nm; — |
1.41~226.0 μg/cm2; 1.41~22.60 μg/cm2; 1.41~226.0 μg/cm2 |
Alveolar macrophage | Reduced cell viability | [45] |
| C-SWNTs; C60-fullerenes; Graphite particles |
— | — | — | Human monocytes-derived macrophages | apoptosis/necrosis | [46] |
| Carbon black nanoparticles | 175± 80 nm | 20± 6 nm | 30 μg/cm2 | RAW264.7, human alveolar macrophages | Caspase 1 and IL-1β release, LDH release, plasma membrane disruption, pyroptosis | [47] |
| Fe@CNPs | — | — | 50 and 400 μg/ ml | HEK293 and C33A cell | ROS generation and apoptosis | [48] |
| SWCNHs | 400 nm | ~100 nm | 0.01~0.3 mg/ml | RAW 264.7 | Apoptosis and necrosis associated with lysosomal membrane destabilization, ROS generation, inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) release | [51] |
| MWCNTs | 0.5-2 μm | < 8 nm; 20 30 nm; > 50 nm |
100 μg/ml | 3T3, RAW 264.7 and bronchiolar epithelial cells. | Cytotoxicity differing with particle sizes and cell types, reactive oxygen species generation, lysosomal membrane destabilization and mitochondrial permeability. | [52] |
| SWCNTs | — | 0.8~2.0 nm | 25 or 50 μg/cm2 | Normal and malignant human mesothelial cells | ROS generation, increased cell death, enhanced DNA damage and H2AX phosphorylation, and activated PARP, AP-1, NF-κB, p38, and Akt | [55] |
| MWCNTs | < 1μm | 9.5 nm | 2.5~100 μg/ml | RAW264.7, A549 | LDH release and oxidative stress | [57] |
| Carbon nanohorns | — | — | 1~100 μg/ml | RAW 264.7 | Reactive oxygen species generation and apoptosis lysosomal membrane permeabilization | [58] |
| Pristine-SWCNTs | — | — | 1 μg/cm2 | RAW264.7 | Decreased cell viability and ATP production, increased ROS and NO production, activation of the MAP kinase pathway, increased levels of apoptosis- and autophagy-related proteins and ER stress-related proteins | [59] |
| Functionalized MWCNTs (tau-MWCNTs); Pristine MWCNTs (raw-MWCNTs); |
300~600 nm; — |
10~20 nm; — |
0~ 80 μg/ml | RAW 264.7 | Apoptosis related to mitochondrial injury, less toxicity induced by tau-MWCNTs | [60] |
| MWCNTs | — | — | 20 μg/ml | Mature human monocyte-derived macrophage cells | Apoptosis and necrosis | [61] |
| Short MWCNTs; Long MWCNTs |
0.6 μm; 20 μm |
30.6 nm; 27.8 nm |
10 μg/ml | Primary human alveolar macrophage | Reduced cell viability, ROS generation and inflammatory mediator release induced by long MWCNTs. | [64] |
| MWCNTs; Onion-like shell-shaped carbon nanoparticles; |
~2 μm; — |
10~15 nm; 50~100 nm |
0~500 μg/ml | 16HBE14o- | ROS generation, reduced cell viability | [70] |
| MWCNTs-COOH; MWCNTs-PEG | 0.9 μm; 0.8 μm |
24.6 nm; 27.3 nm |
0~100 μg/ml | RAW 264.7 cells, primary rat peritoneal macrophages | Activation of oxidative stress-responsive pathways, such as p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and nuclear factor (NF)-κB | [71] |
| Purified-MWCNT; COOH-MWCNT | 1122 nm; 652 nm |
— | 1~50 μg/ml | Human alveolar macrophage | Reduced cell viability and increased inflammatory mediator (IL-1β and IL-8) release | [76] |
| Two types of functionalized carbon nanotubes (1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction and the oxidation- /amidation treatment) | — | — | 1~10 μg/ml | Primary B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, and peritoneal macrophages | Intake by B and T lymphocytes as well as macrophages in vitro without affecting cell viability. | [103] |