Table 1.

Description of Cognitive Tests used to Assess the Cognitive Factors of Interest in Experiment 1 (Panel A) and Experiment 2 (Panel B).

	Panel A: Experiment 1 Cognitive Measures			Panel B: Experiment 2 Cognitive Measures
	Construct	Test	Description	Test	Description
Cognitive Measures	Verbal Knowledge	Woodcock Johnson- III, Test 1: Vocabulary, Synonyms, Antonyms, Analogies	Crystallized intelligence: the extent of one’s knowledge, the ability to verbally communicate knowledge, and the ability to reason based on previously learned information and experiences.	Woodcock-Munoi Language Survey® Revised Normative Update*: Vocabulary, Analogies	Crystallized intelligence: the extent of one’s knowledge, the ability to verbally communicate knowledge, and the ability to reason based on previously learned information and experiences.
	Reading Comprehension	Woodcock Language Proficiency Batten—Revised, Test 7, Passage Comprehension	Reading ability, independent of verbal comprehension.	No equivalent measure.	Reading comprehension was assessed by the school as an academic outcome measure.
	Relational Reasoning	Woodcock Johnson- III, Test 5, Concept Formation	Fluid reasoning: general abilities to reason, generate concepts, and solve novel problems in the absence of prior knowledge.	Test of Non-verbal Intelligence, 4th edition	Fluid reasoning and general intelligence, specifically abstract reasoning and problem solving without the confounds of verbal abilities.
	Associative. Long-term Memory Retrieval	Woodcock Johnson- III, Test 2, Visual-Auditory Learning (VAL)	Storage and retrieval of information from long-term memory, not to be confused with one’s long-term memory store which constitutes the contents of knowledge.	No equivalent measure.
	Short-term Memory Span	Test of Memory and Learning- 2, Digits Forward	Holding items in memory without requiring additional mental operations on items.	No equivalent measure.
	Working Memory Span	Test of Memory and Learning- 2, Digits Backward	Ability to manipulate and operate on items in shortterm memory.	Backward Corsi Blocks, PEBL	Ability to manipulate and operate on items in short-term memory.
Academic Measures	Aptitude	Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)	Standardized college admissions assessment measuring academic readiness for college.	No equivalent measure.
		Verbal	vocabulary, text comprehension, inferential reasoning, organization of ideas, and understanding literary elements
		Math	arithmetic operations (e.g.. fractions), algebra, geometry, statistics, problem solving, and reasoning
	Academic Achievement	Grade Point Average (GPA)	Mastery of specific course content.	Reading Inventory (RI)	Standardized computer adaptive test of text reading comprehension.
		Concurrent	Semester of participation.	Concurrent	Year of participation.
		Longitudinal	Two-years after participation.	Longitudinal	Two-years after participation.
				NC End-of-Grade Math	Standardized test of 3rd grade level mathematics achievement.
				Concurrent	Year of participation.
				Longitudinal	Two-years after participation.