Table 1.
Clinical and demographic characteristics of the study groups.
| Characteristics | No DR (n = 140) | DR (n = 102) | p |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 42.1 ± 10.3 | 46.2 ± 10.8 | 0.004 |
| Sex (men) | 62 (44.3) | 47 (46.1) | 0.884 |
| Race (Caucasian) | 137 (97.9) | 101 (99.0) | 0.640 |
| Study site | 0.168 | ||
| Badalona | 85 (60.7) | 52 (51.0) | |
| Lleida | 55 (39.3) | 50 (49.0) | |
| Educational level | 0.069 | ||
| Less than primary school | 8 (5.9) | 4 (4.1) | |
| Completed primary school | 34 (25.2) | 35 (36.5) | |
| Secondary/high school | 49 (36.3) | 39 (40.6) | |
| Graduate school or higher | 44 (32.6) | 18 (18.8) | |
| Smoking | 0.282 | ||
| Non or former smoker | 106 (75.7) | 70 (68.6) | |
| Yes | 34 (24.3) | 32 (31.4) | |
| Regular physical activity | 98 (70.0) | 77 (75.5) | 0.425 |
| Insulin dose (UI/kg/day) | 0.57 [0.41; 0.75] | 0.65 [0.45; 0.86] | 0.027 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 86.0 [79.0; 95.0] | 90.0 [81.0; 100.0] | 0.050 |
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 120.0 [110.0; 134.0] | 130.0 [118.0; 140.0] | 0.003 |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 74.2 ± 9.6 | 73.6 ± 9.3 | 0.666 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 24.7 [22.4; 27.3] | 25.9 [23.1; 28.3] | 0.091 |
| Hypertension | 20 (14.3) | 40 (39.2) | <0.001 |
| Dyslipidaemia | 49 (35.0) | 48 (48.0) | 0.056 |
| Microalbuminuria | 5 (3.6) | 13 (12.9) | 0.014 |
| Diabetes duration (years) | 17.0 [11.0; 22.0] | 26.5 [19.2; 33.0] | <0.001 |
| Glaucoma | – | 3 (2.9) | – |
| Myopia over 5 dioptres | 3 (2.1) | 1 (0.9) | – |
| HbA1c (%) | 7.3 [6.8; 7.8] | 7.7 [7.2; 8.5] | <0.001 |
| HbA1c (mmol/mol) | 56.3 [50.8; 61.7] | 60.7 [55.2; 69.4] | <0.001 |
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 177.0 [164.0; 201.0] | 176 [158.0; 200.0] | 0.560 |
| HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 65.5 [55.0; 75.0] | 59.5 [51.0; 71.0] | 0.015 |
| LDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 102.0 [87.0; 115.0] | 100.0 [83.2; 119.0] | 0.777 |
| Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 64.0 [49.8; 80.0] | 68.0 [53.0; 89.8] | 0.084 |
| Ethanol consumption (g/day) | 5.6 ± 9.2 | 6.5 ± 11.6 | 0.686 |
Data are shown as median [interquartile], means ± SD or n (%). DR, diabetic retinopathy; HbA1c, glycated haemoglobin; HDL, high density lipoprotein; LDL, low density lipoprotein.