Table 5. Observational studies investigating staging inequity as a mechanism perpetuating surgical disparities.

Source	Data source	# of lung cancer patients	Years studied	Research question	Finding
Farjah et al. (56)	Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program	43,912	1998–2002	What are the trends and factors associated with single vs. multi-modality staging?	Patients of black race, low income, low education, and living in rural areas were less likely to receive multi-modality staging
Gould et al. (57)	Cancer Care Outcomes Research and Surveillance Consortium	3,638	2003–2005	Are demographic and tumor related factors associated with PET imaging for lung cancer?	Hispanics and those of non-white race were less likely to undergo PET staging, even after controlling for income, education, or insurance payer status
Lathan et al. (58)	Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program	14,224	1991–1999	What is the impact of race on patterns of invasive staging and treatment for lung cancer?	Black patients were less likely to undergo invasive staging than white patients. Staged black patients remained less likely to undergo surgery than whites due to lower recommendations for surgery and higher rates of refusal
Suga et al. (59)	California Cancer Registry	12,395	1994–2004	Do racial disparities exist in the receipt of noninvasive and invasive staging modalities?	There were no racial differences in the receipt of non-invasive or invasive staging techniques. However, rural patients were less likely to undergo staging

PET, positron emission tomography.