Table 4.

Environmental and health risks due to waste open burning and open dumping for different waste streams.

Waste Stream	Pollutants and Hazards	Environmental and Health Risks
MSW open dumping	Leachates with high concentrations of heavy metals, BOD, COD, SO42−, NH3, Anaerobic digestion of organic fractions with generation of landfill gases, mainly composed of methane, Disease vectors living in the areas.	The leachate generated is released to the soil, polluting groundwaters mainly used for drinking and household purposes. The risks concern the health the population through direct and indirect (agriculture) intake. The generation of methane and other GHGs increases global warming, the risk of local fires and the pollution of the atmosphere surrounding the final disposal sites. The breeding of animals around the disposal sites and the presence of rodents and insects increases the risks of diseases transferring to the population through bites and direct contact with the animals. The uncontrolled disposal causes the release of waste fractions, mainly plastics, into water bodies, contaminating the rivers, lakes and then the oceans and the seas, causing the phenomena of the marine littering.
MSW open burning	Generation of PCDD/F and cancerogenic compounds, PM, BC, CO, CO2, NO, and other GHG and hazardous compounds.	The emissions due to uncontrolled waste fires produce significant amounts of contaminants that affect the health of the population. Respiratory illnesses, especially in children, are common in areas with open burning practices. The generation of BC, CO, CO2 and other GHG, affects the GWP, more than the anaerobic degradation of organic waste.
HW	Open dumping of sharp and infectious waste, Burned HW generates PCDD/F and other hazardous compounds.	The presence of sharps and infectious waste in open dump sites increases the risks to waste pickers that operate in the area. Indeed, recyclable materials are scavenged by informal recyclers, that are not aware of the issues due to HW. Moreover, these fractions can be targets for animal disease vectors. Finally, the open dumping of HW creates bacterial resistance, that affects the performance of antibiotics for human uses. Burned HW is a source of PCDD/F that directly affect the health of the population living near sites, increasing the risk of cancer and respiratory diseases.
WEEE and used batteries	The open dumping of the waste generates leachates with high heavy metals concentrations, The open burning generates hazardous compounds like PCDD/F, BC and PM.	Open WEEE dumping generates leachates rich in heavy metals. Waste picking is also done on these fractions to collect precious metals. These practices affect the health of the pickers that operate in the dumping sites, due to the presence of Hg, Pb, Cd and Mn, all hazardous metals. Picking of WEEE leads to waste burning for the recovery of the metals. Uncontrolled WEEE burning affects the quality of the air and the atmosphere due to the generation of high amounts of PM, BC and PCDD/F, affecting both the health of the populations surrounding the site and increasing the GWP.
C&D waste	Landslides due to waste uncontrolled dumping, Presence of hazardous materials within the waste, such as asbestos, lead, mercury and sharp waste.	The main issue is the risk of landslides that can affect populated areas. The huge amounts of waste produced by C&D activities reduce the useful life of final disposal sites and their density, increasing the risk of land collapses. The presence of hazardous materials can be a source of pollution due to the leachates generated at the final disposal sites or directly for the waste pickers operating collecting recyclable materials. Pb and Hg waste can affect the health of the population due to respiratory, skin and other illnesses.
Waste tires	The open dumping causes the presence of mosquitos and the risk of fire injections, Open burning generates contaminants for the atmosphere, such as BC and SOx.	Open dumping of waste tires is an area of mosquito growth, especially in tropical areas, where dengue, malaria, yellow fever, among other diseases, is common. The presence of waste tires in open dump sites increases the risk of contraction of these illnesses. Moreover, the presence of this highly combustible waste fraction, can be a cause of fires. Open burning of waste tires induces high generation of PM, BC and SO, increasing the GWP and the acid rain phenomenon due to the presence of sulphates in the atmosphere which generate H2S in contact with water, increasing environmental pollution. Moreover, the generation of PM, containing heavy metals increases health issues in the populations that live near the areas, also affecting the air indoor.
Industrial waste	Generation of hazardous leachates mainly composed of heavy metals.	The presence of heavy metals affects the health of citizens, especially the children, which intake can be less than an adult in terms of concentrations assumed per day, boosting the health effects. The presence of heavy metals is persistent and affects the soil and groundwater quality, with possible intake by direct ingestion (e.g., food and water).