Table 1.
Common T-cell features among VHF entities.
| Feature | Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Families | References | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Arenaviridae LASV |
Filoviridae EBOV |
Hantaviridae Hantaviruses |
Flaviviridae DENV |
||
| Most prominent T-cell role | More protective than pathogenic | More protective than pathogenic | More protective than pathogenic | More pathogenic than protective | [33,43,45,46] |
| T-cell immunodominant viral protein | Nucleoprotean glycoprotein | Nucleoprotein | Nucleocapsid protein; glycoprotein | Non-structural proteins | [45,47,48,49] |
| Reported effector protective mechanisms | IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2 | IFN-γ, TNF-α, production | IFN-γ, TNF-α, production cytotoxicity | TNF-γ, production cytotoxicity | [33,46,50,51] |
| Apoptosis of T-cells | Yes | High | Yes | Yes, particularly of antigen-specific cells | [52,53,54,55] |
| Defective T-cell activation or dysfunction | Low activation capacity by antigen-presenting cells; low proliferative and cytokine T-cell response | Low activation capacity by antigen-presenting cells | Not reported Hantavirus nucleocapsid protein inhibits granzyme B-mediated apoptosis | Low activation capacity by infected antigen-presenting cells | [56,57,58] |