Table 1.
Participants’ characteristics according to depressive symptoms at mid-pregnancy.
| Participants’ Characteristics and Outcomes | Overall | EPDS <13 | EPDS ≥13 |
|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 1225) | (n = 1103) | (n = 122) | |
| Mean (SD) or % | |||
| Maternal characteristics | |||
| Age at enrollment, years | 32.2 (5.2) | 32.4 (5.1) | 30.3 (5.9) |
| Race/ethnicity, % | |||
| Black | 15.5 | 14.2 | 27.9 |
| Hispanic | 6.3 | 5.7 | 11.8 |
| White | 68.3 | 70.4 | 49.1 |
| Other | 9.9 | 9.7 | 11.1 |
| College degree, % | 68.9 | 70.2 | 57.2 |
| IQ (KBIT-2 composite), points | 106.5 (15.4) | 106.9 (15.2) | 103.4 (16.6) |
| Household income > $70,000 USD/year, % | 60.1 | 62.5 | 38.0 |
| Antidepressant prescribed during pregnancy, % | 2.8 | 2.0 | 10.2 |
| Pre-pregnancy BMI, kg/m2 | 24.7 (5.1) | 24.6 (5.1) | 25.2 (5.4) |
| Pregnancy smoking status, % | |||
| Never | 71.3 | 71.2 | 72.7 |
| Former | 19.0 | 19.9 | 11.0 |
| During pregnancy | 9.7 | 8.9 | 16.3 |
| EPDS ≥13 at 6 months postpartum, % | 9.4 | 6.6 | 34.9 |
| EPDS ≥13 at 12 months postpartum, % | 7.4 | 5.2 | 27.1 |
| Child characteristics | |||
| Age mid-childhood visit, years | 7.9 (0.8) | 7.9 (0.8) | 8.0 (0.9) |
| Sex, male % | 50.3 | 50.8 | 45.8 |
| Gestational age, weeks | 39.5 (1.8) | 39.5 (1.8) | 39.3 (1.8) |
| Birth weight/gestational age z-score | 0.19 (0.97) | 0.21 (0.96) | 0.03 (1.02) |
| Duration of any breastfeeding at 6 months, in months | 4.1 (2.4) | 4.1 (2.4) | 3.9 (2.5) |
| Duration of any breastfeeding at 12 months, in months | 6.3 (4.6) | 6.3 (4.6) | 6.1 (4.8) |
| Behavior and executive function in mid-childhood | |||
| Teacher-rated | |||
| BRIEF Global Executive Composite | 51.2 (10.5) | 50.8 (10.0) | 54.6 (13.2) |
| BRIEF Behavior Regulation Index | 50.8 (10.2) | 50.4 (9.7) | 54.3 (13.3) |
| BRIEF Metacognition Index | 51.3 (10.8) | 50.9 (10.5) | 54.2 (12.9) |
| SDQ Total Difficulties | 6.4 (5.8) | 6.2 (5.6) | 8.0 (7.3) |
| SDQ Prosocial | 8.0 (2.2) | 8.1 (2.2) | 7.9 (2.4) |
| SDQ Hyperactivity | 3.1 (3.0) | 3.0 (3.0) | 3.6 (3.3) |
| SDQ Emotional Problems | 1.3 (1.8) | 1.3 (1.7) | 1.8 (2.1) |
| SDQ Conduct Problems | 0.9 (1.6) | 0.8 (1.5) | 1.3 (2.0) |
| SDQ Peer Problems | 1.1 (1.6) | 1.1 (1.6) | 1.3 (1.9) |
| Mother-rated | |||
| BRIEF Global Executive Composite | 48.7 (9.2) | 48.4 (9.0) | 51.0 (10.4) |
| BRIEF Behavior Regulation Index | 48.2 (8.9) | 48.0 (8.6) | 50.7 (10.3) |
| BRIEF Metacognition Index | 48.5 (8.8) | 48.3 (8.7) | 50.3 (9.4) |
| SDQ Total Difficulties | 6.6 (4.8) | 6.3 (4.6) | 9.0 (6.0) |
| SDQ Prosocial | 8.5 (1.7) | 8.5 (1.7) | 8.3 (1.8) |
| SDQ Hyperactivity | 2.9 (2.4) | 2.9 (2.4) | 3.5 (2.5) |
| SDQ Emotional Problems | 1.6 (1.7) | 1.5 (1.7) | 2.3 (2.0) |
| SDQ Conduct Problems | 1.0 (1.3) | 1.0 (1.2) | 1.4 (1.6) |
| SDQ Peer Problems | 1.0 (1.4) | 1.0 (1.3) | 1.7 (1.8) |
| Offspring cognition in mid-childhood | |||
| KBIT-2 Verbal | 111.9 (15.0) | 112.4 (14.8) | 107.7 (16.4) |
| KBIT-2 Non-Verbal | 106.3 (16.9) | 106.6 (16.8) | 103.8 (17.4) |
| WRAVMA Visual–Motor | 91.9 (16.8) | 92.0 (16.7) | 91.4 (16.9) |
| WRAML Design Memory | 8.0 (2.8) | 8.0 (2.8) | 7.7 (3.1) |
| WRAML Picture Memory | 8.9 (3.0) | 8.9 (3.0) | 9.3 (3.3) |
| WRAML Visual Memory, Global Score | 16.9 (4.4) | 16.9 (4.3) | 16.9 (4.7) |
Note: EPDS = Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (range 0–30); BRIEF = Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (standardized mean = 50, SD = 10); SDQ = Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Total Difficulties range 0–40 and subscales range 0–10); KBIT-2 = Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (standardized mean = 100, SD = 15); WRAML = Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning (standardized mean = 10, SD = 3); WRAVMA = Wide Range Assessment of Visual Motor Abilities (standardized mean = 100, SD = 15); SD = standard deviation. Higher scores on the BRIEF and SDQ indicate greater behavior problems.