Table 2.
Individual- and Community-Level Predictors of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
| Crude Model |
Adjusted Model* |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Odds Ratio | 95% CI | P Value | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | P Value | |
| Census tract characteristics | ||||||
| Urban–rural status | ||||||
| Urban | Reference |
|||||
| Suburban | 1.04 | 0.93–1.16 | 0.51 | 0.97 | 0.87–1.07 | 0.51 |
| Medium metro | 1.30 | 1.17–1.44 | <0.001 | 1.02 | 0.92–1.14 | 0.69 |
| Small metro | 1.48 | 1.28–1.44 | <0.001 | 1.05 | 0.91–1.21 | 0.49 |
| Rural | 2.01 | 1.80–2.23 | <0.001 | 1.23 | 1.09–1.40 | <0.001 |
| Census-level poverty | ||||||
| Community poverty | 1.46 | 1.35–1.57 | <0.001 | 1.12 | 1.03–1.22 | 0.012 |
| Regions | ||||||
| Northeast | Reference |
|||||
| Midwest | 1.35 | 1.21–1.50 | <0.001 | 1.20 | 1.06–1.36 | 0.003 |
| South | 1.32 | 1.19–1.47 | <0.001 | 1.27 | 1.14–1.41 | <0.001 |
| West | 0.87 | 0.78–0.98 | 0.023 | 1.01 | 0.89–1.14 | 0.91 |
| Census tract fuel use† | ||||||
| Wood | 1.01 | 1.01–1.02 | <0.001 | 1.00 | 0.99–1.00 | 0.23 |
| Coal | 1.07 | 1.04–1.11 | <0.001 | 1.03 | 0.98–1.08 | 0.28 |
| Occupation category‡ | ||||||
| Agriculture, mining | 1.02 | 1.01–1.03 | 0.002 | 1.00 | 1.00–1.01 | 0.64 |
| Construction | 1.02 | 1.01–1.03 | 0.001 | 1.00 | 0.99–1.01 | 0.94 |
| Manufacturing | 1.02 | 1.01–1.02 | <0.001 | 1.00 | 1.00–1.01 | 0.131 |
| Individual characteristics | ||||||
| Demographics | ||||||
| Age, per 10-yr increase | 1.32 | 1.29–1.35 | <0.001 | 1.04 | 1.00–1.07 | 0.039 |
| Smoking duration | 1.04 | 1.04–1.05 | <0.001 | 1.04 | 1.03–1.04 | <0.001 |
| Race | ||||||
| White | Reference |
|||||
| Black | 0.87 | 0.79–0.95 | 0.002 | 0.68 | 0.61–0.75 | <0.001 |
| Asian | 0.29 | 0.24–0.36 | <0.001 | 0.44 | 0.35–0.54 | <0.001 |
| Hispanic | 0.47 | 0.42–0.53 | 0.017 | 0.49 | 0.43–0.57 | <0.001 |
| Insurance status | ||||||
| Private insurance | Reference |
|||||
| No insurance | 1.62 | 1.42–1.84 | <0.001 | 1.07 | 0.92–1.23 | 0.38 |
| Medicare | 3.14 | 2.89–3.41 | <0.001 | 1.83 | 1.65–2.03 | <0.001 |
| Medicaid | 5.06 | 4.59–5.58 | <0.001 | 2.76 | 2.44–3.11 | <0.001 |
| Education | ||||||
| College and beyond | Reference |
|||||
| High school graduate | 1.62 | 1.49–1.75 | <0.001 | 1.04 | 0.96–1.14 | 0.33 |
| Less than high school | 2.13 | 1.96–2.31 | <0.001 | 1.16 | 1.05–1.29 | 0.003 |
| Home ownership status | ||||||
| Owns home | Reference |
|||||
| Other arrangement (rented) | 1.54 | 1.43–1.65 | <0.001 | 1.18 | 1.09–1.27 | <0.001 |
| Household poverty§ | 1.20 | 1.18–1.22 | <0.001 | 1.08 | 1.06–1.10 | <0.001 |
Definition of abbreviation: CI = confidence interval.
Bold values are statistically significant.
*
Adjusted for urban–rural status, community wealth, region, census-level occupational distribution, census-level fuel use, race, age, sex, smoking duration, household poverty, home ownership, education, and insurance type.
†
Per 1% increase in census tract residents using this fuel type as their primary source of heating.
‡
Per 1% increase in census tract residents employed in this occupation.
§
Per one-unit decrease in household income-to-poverty ratio.