Table 1.
Summarized effects and mechanisms of ginsenoside Rb1 on different targets related to diabetes mellitus in animal and in vitro studies.
| Model | Type | Inducer | Animal/Cell | Effects | Mechanisms | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DM | In vitro | AdipoR1 sense siRNA | C2C12 myotubes | ↑Basal AdipoR levels ↑GLUT4 translocations |
↑Translocations of GLUT4; Adiponectin signaling pathway |
[61] |
| T2DM; Obesity | In vivo | HFD | Obese mouse | ↓Body weight gain ↓Fat accumulation ↑Glucose tolerance |
Modulate inflammation ↑Central leptin sensitivity ↓Pro-inflammatory cytokines |
[62] |
| T2DM | In vivo | db/db | C57; db/db mice |
↑Insulin sensitivity ↓Adipocyte lipolysis ↓Levels of free fatty acids ↑Hepatic fat accumulation ↓Liver weight, hepatic triglyceride |
↓TNF-α ↑Perilipin ↑Insulin sensitivity ↑Level of adiponectin |
[64] |
|
T2DM;
Obesity |
In vivo | HFD | Rat | ↓Food intake ↓Body weight gain ↓Body fat content ↑Energy expenditure |
↑c-Fos ↓NPY ↓PI3k/Akt signaling pathway |
[71] |
| Obesity | In vivo | KK-Ay | C57 KK-Ay mice |
↓Body weight gain ↓FBG and food consumption |
↑Insulin/leptin sensitivities ↓Insulin resistance index |
[73] |
| T2DM; Obesity | In vitro | Differentiation inducer | 3T3-L1 cells | ↑Glucose uptake ↑Lipid accumulation ↑Proliferation of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes |
↑ap2, GLUT4 ↑Adipogenesis ↑PPARγ2 and C/EBPα |
[74] |
| T2DM; Obesity | In vitro | Differentiation inducer | 3T3-L1 cells; C2C12 myotubes | ↑PI3K activity ↑Glucose uptake ↑IRS1 and PKB phosphorylation |
Activating insulin signaling pathway | [75] |
| T2DM; Obesity | In vivo | db/db | db/db mice | ↑GLUT1 and GLUT4 ↑Akt Phosphorylation ↓HOMA-IR and FBG and FINS |
↑Glucose metabolism ↑Insulin sensitizing activity |
[78] |
| T2DM | In vivo | HFD | C57BL/C mice | ↑Glucose tolerance ↓11β-HSD1 levels ↑Fasting blood glucose |
↓11β-HSD1 ↑Insulin sensitivity |
[79] |
| DM | In vitro | HG; Cytokine |
Rin-m5F | ↓iNOS expression and NO ↓Pancreatic β-cell apoptosis |
↓Caspase-3 ↓Apoptosis-related genes |
[84] |
| T2DM | In vivo; In vitro | HFD; STZ |
Male SD rats; NCI-H716 cells |
↑GLP-1 secretion ↑ATP:ADP ratio |
↑GLP-1 ↑Proglucagon |
[86] |
C/EBPα, recombinant human CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha; DM, diabetes mellitus; DC, diabetic cardiomyopathy; DN, diabetic nephropathy; FBG, fasting blood glucose; FINS, fasting insulin; HOMA-IR, homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance; HG, high glucose; HFD, high-fat diet; GLUT, glucose transporter; HOCl, hypochlorous acid; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1; IL-6 and/or IL-1β, pro-inflammatory cytokines; IRS1, insulin receptor substrate-1; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; MAPK, mitogen activated protein kinase; MI/R, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion; NO, nitric oxide; PPARγ, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ; PKB/Akt, protein kinase B; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; Rin-m5F, Rattus pancreatic β-cell line; RF stands for references; STZ, streptozotocin; SD, Sprague–Dawley rat; T2DM, type 2 diabetes; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; 11β-HSD1, 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type I.