Table 3.
Summary of evidence on physical activity (PA) correlates in Thai adults (18 – 59 years old)
| Correlates | Relationship with PA | Summary Code | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Negative/Inverse (-) | Positive (+) | Non-significant (?) | ||
| Individual Level | ||||
| Demographic factor | ||||
| – Age | 37, 58, 59, 107, 124, 140, 172 | 58, 72, 81, 112, 116, 117, 155, 176, 190, 197 | ?? | |
| – Sex (+ denotes males are more active, - denotes females are more active) | 50, 100, 155, 196 | 31, 83, 87, 100, 107, 113, 116, 117, 131, 132, 136, 150, 159, 165, 180, 181, 184, 186, 190, 193, 195 | 36, 44, 58, 59, 72, 92, 95, 112, 124, 140, 172, 176, 194, 197 | ?? |
| – Municipality (+ denotes more PA in an urban place of residence, - denotes more PA in a rural place of residence) | 58 | 58 | ? | |
| – Marital status (+ denotes singles are more active) | 155 | 58, 59, 72, 81, 101, 112, 117, 172, 190, 197 | ?? | |
| – Education level | 58, 116, 117, 181 | 59, 155, 190 | 58, 72, 101, 112, 172, 197 | ?? |
| – University year | 165 | 137, 186 | 36, 95, 179, 193, 195 | ?? |
| – Faculty* | 44, 87, 165, 194, 195, 196 | 92, 95, 159, 179, 186 | ?? | |
| – Household income | 117 | 58, 92 | 58, 59, 72, 101, 172, 179, 181, 190, 195, 197 | ?? |
| – Occupation (+ denotes unemployed are more active) | 155, 190 | 58, 59, 101, 117 | ?? | |
| – Region (+ denotes Central including Bangkok residents are more active, - denotes residents of other provinces are more active) | 134 | 155 | 172 | ? |
| – Early-life (0-5) urban exposure | 35 | ? | ||
| – Number of family members | 101 | ? | ||
| – Student residency (+ denotes residents of university dorms are more active, - denotes students living in other accommodation types are more active) | 195 | 95, 181 | ? | |
| – Hometown (urban/rural) | 92 | ? | ||
| – Campus/working location* | 163, 197 | 44, 112, 159, 194 | ?? | |
| – Having a dependant | 81 | ? | ||
| – Years of working experience | 172 | + | ||
| – Working position | 112, 172, 197 | ? | ||
| – Working type | 197 | ? | ||
| – Duration of health club membership | 117 | ? | ||
| – Having a ‘dream job’ | 92 | + | ||
| – Extra job (+ denotes yes, - denotes no) | 112 | ? | ||
| – Ever attended a workshop on exercise (+ denotes yes, - denotes no) | 124 | + | ||
| Biological factors | ||||
| – Body mass index (BMI) | 179 | 180 | 58, 109, 181, 197 | ?? |
| – Underweight | 131 (F), 150 | 131 (M) | + | |
| – Overweight | 150 | 65 (M, F), 114, 131 (M, F), 146 (M, F) | ?? | |
| – Obesity | 46 (M, F), 47 (M, F), 86, 114, 150 | 65 (M, F), 128, 131 (M, F) | ?? | |
| – Waist circumference | 197 | ? | ||
| – Body fat (%) | 109 | ? | ||
| – Bone mineral density (BMD) | 134, 138, 160 (M, F) | 74, 90, 145 | ? | |
| – Calcaneal stiffness index | 160 (M, F) | 160 (M, F) | ? | |
| – Skeletal muscle mass percent | 143 | ? | ||
| – Dietary calcium intake | 138 | + | ||
| – Adequate serum vitamin D levels | 143 | ? | ||
| – Sunlight exposure | 138 | + | ||
| – Total cholesterol (TCH) level | 60 (M, F), 107 | ? | ||
| – Triglycerides (TG) level | 60 (M, F), 107 | - | ||
| – HDL-cholesterol level | 60 (M, F), 107 | + | ||
| – LDL-cholesterol level | 107 | ? | ||
| – Total cholesterol: HDL-C ratio | 60 (M, F) | - | ||
| – High TCH | 60 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – High TG | 60 (M, F) | - | ||
| – Low HDL-C | 60 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – High TCH: HDL-C ratio | 60 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – Resting heart rate | 107, 166 (M, F) | - | ||
| – Mean heart rate | 166 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – Predicted maximum heart rate (%) | 166 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – Systolic blood pressure | 107, 166 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – Diastolic blood pressure | 107, 166 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – Fasting plasma glucose | 107 | ? | ||
| – VO2max | 166 (M, F) | + | ||
| – FEV1 (Abnormal lung function) | 166 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – FVC (Pulmonary function test) | 166 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – FEV1/FVC (%) | 166 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – Hematocrit level | 73 | - | ||
| – Hypercholesterolemia | 103 (M, F) | ? | ||
| Physical health | ||||
| – History of sickness/Underlying illness/Co-morbid diseases (+ denotes yes, - denotes no) | 59, 101, 112, 181, 195, 197 | ?? | ||
| – Hypertension | 69 | ? | ||
| – Metabolic syndrome | 136 (M, F) | ? | ||
| – Osteoporosis | 138 | + | ||
| – Musculoskeletal symptoms | 63, 144 | 85, 89, 133 | ? | |
| – Relative appendicular skeletal muscle mass (RASM) | 105 (F) | 105 (M) | ? | |
| – Dysmenorrhea | 57 (F) | ? | ||
| – Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) | 88 | - | ||
| General health | ||||
| – Self-rated general health | 87, 94, 175, 194, 197 | 159 | ++ | |
| Psychological factors | ||||
| – Mental health | 32, 94, 175, 190 | ++ | ||
| – Attitudes towards PA/exercise | 49, 50 (M, F), 117, 154, 165, 186, 188, 190, 197 | 44, 70, 82, 112 | ++ | |
| – Overall health belief | 170 | + | ||
| – Self-efficacy | 81, 83, 87, 140, 159, 172, 187, 194 | 72, 101, 137 | ++ | |
| – Perceived benefits of PA/exercise | 50 (M, F), 83, 87, 101, 137, 172, 175, 194 | 59, 72, 159, 170, 187 | ++ | |
| – Perceived barriers for PA/exercise | 72, 83, 87, 159, 170, 172, 176, 194 | 62, 101, 187 | -- | |
| – Outcome expectancies | 81, 140 | + | ||
| – Intention to PA/exercise | 140, 179 | + | ||
| – Enjoyment of PA/exercise | 59 | + | ||
| – Perceived exercise-related effect | 140 | 72, 170 | ? | |
| – Career satisfaction | 182 | + | ||
| – Motivation for PA/exercise | 83 | 76, 195 | ? | |
| – External regulation | 76 | ? | ||
| – Extrinsic motivation | 76 | - | ||
| – Intrinsic motivation | 76 | + | ||
| – Commitment to PA/exercise | 151 | ? | ||
| – Stress level | 179 | - | ||
| – Sense of coherence | 108 | ? | ||
| – Identity achievement | 108 | ? | ||
| – Score on memory and intelligence tests | 32 | ? | ||
| Physical skills, abilities, and fitness | ||||
| – Physical and functional fitness (e.g. walking distance, leg strength) | 94, 166 (M, F) | + | ||
| Health behavioural and lifestyle factors | ||||
| – Smoking | 78 (M, F), 153 | ? | ||
| – Alcohol consumption | 177 (M) | 177 (F) | ? | |
| – Healthy dietary habits | 119 | + | ||
| – Past PA/exercise experience | 72 | + | ||
| – Being a university athlete | 137, 165 | ? | ||
| – Availability and/or engagement in enjoyable sports | 115, 137 | + | ||
| – Loving watching sports | 115 | ? | ||
| – Having a favourite athlete | 115 | ? | ||
| – Sedentary time | 58 | 127 | ? | |
| – Spare time | 49, 59, 82, 115 | ++ | ||
| – Monosodium glutamate (MSG) intake | 71 | ? | ||
| Knowledge | ||||
| – Knowledge about PA/exercise | 154 | 44, 50 (M, F), 59, 101, 117, 188, 194 | 49, 82, 87, 112, 159, 165, 195, 197 | ?? |
| Academic/school performance | ||||
| – Grade point average | 179 | ? | ||
| Social environment | ||||
| Social and cultural factors | ||||
| – Social support | 50 (M, F), 87, 154, 159, 165, 180, 194, 197 | 101 | ++ | |
| – Cultural support | 180 | + | ||
| – General interpersonal influences | 151 | 49, 82, 154, 187, 197 | 117 | ++ |
| – Parent/family influences | 81, 83, 137, 172 | 72, 117 | ++ | |
| – Family members’ involvement in PA/exercise | 137 | + | ||
| – Friendship/companionship influences | 81 | + | ||
| – Friends’ involvement in PA/exercise | 115 | ? | ||
| – Information support (e.g. from media) | 49, 154, 159, 194, 197 | 82 | ++ | |
| – Religion (+ denotes Buddhists are more active, - denotes Muslims are more active) | 184 | 95 | ? | |
| Physical environment | ||||
| Environmental factors | ||||
| – Environmental support (e.g. situational influences) | 137 | 72, 151, 195 | ? | |
| – Supportive physical environment (e.g. facilities, supplies) | 81, 82, 87, 154 | 49, 101, 197 | ? | |
| – Supportive neighbourhood environment | 81 | ? | ||
| – Urban environment | 35, 100 (M, F) | - | ||
| – Distance to work | 58 | ? | ||
| – Distance to the nearest shopping place | 58 | - | ||
| – Distance to the nearest recreation facility | 58 | ? | ||
| – Distance to the nearest religious establishment | 58 | ? | ||
| – Convenience of travel | 115 | ? | ||
| – Month of the year (+ denotes higher PA in later months of a calendar year) | 109 | + | ||
| Policy | ||||
| Policy attribute | ||||
| – Supportive education policies | 82, 154, 165 | 49 | + | |
| – Supportive workplace policies | 197 | ? | ||
(+) Mostly positive associations, (-) Mostly negative associations, (?) Mostly non-significant, indeterminate, or inconsistent associations, (M) Male, (F) Female, Faculty* and Campus/working location* variables - due to a number of categories of these variables, we used only + (to denote any significant association of specific faculties or campuses/working locations) and ? (to denote a non-significant association) codes.