Table 1.
Summary of studies involving probiotics interventions in CKD patients.
| References | Study Design, Sample, Follow-up | Intervention | Results |
|---|---|---|---|
| Taki et al., 2005 [25] | Non-controlled trial; 27 HD patients; 3 months | 3 × 109 CFU/day of B. longum for 4 weeks, 6.0 × 109 CFU/day from 4th to 8th week, 12.0 × 109 CFU/day from 8th to 12th week. |
↓ IS, homocystein and triglyceride serum levels ↑ folate serum levels |
| Ranganathan et al., 2010 [12] | RCT with crossover, multicenter; 46 non-dialysis CKD patients; 6 months | 9 × 1010 CFU/day of a probiotic mix: S. thermophilus, L. acidophilus, and B. longum | ↓ urea serum levels Overall improvement in quality of life ↔ Cr and or uric acid |
| Alatriste et al., 2014 [23] | RCT; 30 non-dialysis CKD patients; 2 months | 8 × 109 CFU/day vs. 16 × 109 CFU/day of L. casei Shirota | ↓ serum urea – in dose of 16 × 109 CFU |
| Natarajan et al., 2014 [28] | RCT with crossover; 22 HD patients; 6 months | 1.8 × 1011 CFU/day of a probiotic mix: S. thermophilus, L. acidophilus, and B. longum | ↔ Uremic toxins or inflammatory markers. |
| Wang et al., 2015 [29] | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial; 39 peritoneal dialysis patients;6 months | 109 CFU/day of B. bifidum, 109 CFU/day of B. catenulatum, 109 CFU/day of B. longum, and 109 CFU/day of L. plantarum | ↓ serum TNF-α, IL-5, IL-6, and endotoxin ↑ serum IL-10 |
| Soleimani et al., 2016 [30] | RCT; 60 diabetic patients on HD; 3 months | 2 × 109 CFU. L. acidophilus, L. casei and B. bifidum | ↓ plasma glucose, serum insulin, HOMA-IR, HOMA-B, HbA1c, hs-CRP, MDA, SGA scores, TIBC ↑ plasma total antioxidant capacity ↔ lipid profiles, biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress |
| Shariaty et al., 2017 [31] | RCT; 34 HD patients; 3 months | 3 × 1010 CFU of L. acidophilus, 3 × 109 CFU of L. casei, 7 × 109 CFU of L. rhamnosus, 5 × 108 CFU of L. bulgaricus, 2 × 1010 CFU of B. breve, 1 × 109 CFU of B. longum, 3 × 108 CFU of S. thermophilus | ↔ Hb or CRP levels |
| Borges et al., 2017 [13] | RCT; 33 HD patients; 3 months | 9 × 1010 CFU/day of a probiotic mix: S. thermophilus, L. acidophilus, and B. longum | ↑ plasma IS, K, urea; ↓ fecal pH ↔ p-CS, IAA, inflammatory markers (CRP and IL-6) or gut microbiota profile |
| Barros et al., 2018 [24] | RCT; 22 non-dialysis CKD patients; 3 months | 9 × 1010 CFU/day of a probiotic mix: S. thermophilus, L. acidophilus, and B. longum | ↑ IL-6 plasma levels ↔ Uremic toxins (TMAO, IS, p-CS and IAA), CRP, LPS or calprotectin. |
| Eidi et al., 2018 [26] | RCT; 42 HD patients; 1 month | 1.6 × 107 CFU/day of L. Rhamnosus | ↓ phenol and p-cresol serum levels |
Abbreviations: HD: hemodialysis; CFU: colony-forming units; CKD: chronic kidney disease; RCT: Randomized clinical trial; Cr: creatinine; CRP: C-reactive protein; K: potassium; LPS: lipopolysaccharides; MDA: malondialdehyde; IS: indoxyl sulfate; p-CS: p-cresyl sulfate; IAA: indole-3-acetic acid; TMAO: trimethylamine-N-oxide; IL: Interleukin; HOMA-IR: homeostatic model assessment- insulin resistance; HOMA-B: homeostatic model assessment- beta; HbA1c: glycated hemoglobin; hs-CRP: high sensitivity C-reactive protein; SGA: saturated fatty acids; TIBC: total iron binding capacity; Hb: hemoglobin; ↔: no change; ↑: increase; ↓: decrease.