Table 1. Summary of mentoring studies reviewed.

Author, year and country	Purpose	Sample and study population	Study design and data collection	Methods of analysis	Key mentoring outcomes
Athanasiou et al. [33] (2016) UK	Investigate gender disparities in research performance such as mentoring and scientific collaboration	N = 104 (34F) professors in Faculty of Medicine	Cross-sectional survey Mentoring perception survey, bibliometric analysis and social network analysis	Correlation, regression analyses and Mann-Whitney U test	No significant gender differences in mentoring skills, quality, frequency or satisfaction of mentoring and number of publications, citations and h-index.
Blood et al. [34] (2012) USA	Better understand the characteristics and components of mentoring desired by women	N = 1179F from medicine and dentistry; 5% professors, 13% associate professors, 28% assistant professors and 53% instructors Median age 44 years 83% worked full-time	Cross-sectional survey	Chi-square test, t-test, ANOVA and logistic regression	54% had a mentor, 72% without mentor indicated need for mentorship and 39% reported insufficient mentoring impacted career advancement. Important mentor characteristics: availability (71%), program development and strategic planning experience (54%), clinical experience (41%) and teaching experience (41%). Minorities more likely to consider gender and race important. <50% reported mentoring needs met such as program development, strategic planning, shifting career needs and negotiating skills. Unmet needs rated highest importance were career goal-setting and negotiation skills (52%). Lower ranked faculty interested in mentoring for career advancement and writing, while higher ranks identified need for mentoring on strategic planning. Those with children identified mentoring gaps in finding collaborators and work-life balance.
Carapinha, et al. [35] (2016) USA	Investigate the mentor characteristics women faculty in academic medicine report most important	N = 3100F women faculty in medical schools at instructor level or higher White: 68%, age ≤44 years: 48%, assistant professors: 41% and instructors: 23%	Cross-sectional survey	Chi square tests and ordered logistic regression	53% currently had a mentor, 34% had been mentored in the past, and 13% had never had a mentor. Participants identified having a mentor in the same department and institution important. Faculty of lower rank had greater preference for mentors with similar personal and career interests. Lower rank faculty, Black faculty, and those not currently mentored had a greater preference for mentors of same gender. In general, women considered having mentors of same race/ethnicity less important, except for racial/ethnic minorities, foreign-born faculty, and those who had never had a mentor.
Chung & Kowalski [36] (2012) USA	Examine mentoring relationships among nursing faculty to understand influences on job stress, psychological empowerment and job satisfaction	N = 959 nursing faculty; participants were generally female, mean age 53 years, worked full time and had a PhD	Cross-sectional survey including validated scales of mentoring, faculty stress, psychological empowerment and job satisfaction	Pearson’s correlation, t-tests and multiple linear regression	40% had mentor; 76% felt mentoring quality was good; having a mentor associated significantly with higher psychological empowerment, lower job stress and higher job satisfaction; Positive relationship among mentoring quality, psychological empowerment and job satisfaction.
Colletti et al. [37] (2000) USA	Determine if concerns expressed by male and female surgeons reflected broader concerns for academic surgery and medicine	N = 54 (9F) medical faculty Most women were from tenure track and just over half were senior faculty; none held a PhD and/or MD	Cross-sectional survey	Univariate descriptive statistics, t-tests (but t-statistic and p-value not reported)	While two in three women had a mentor; most mentors were male; Women perceived mentoring as a specific area of bias. Women received critique on clinical performance and scientific work less often than men. Most women felt their mentors actively fostered their career though 56% also reported that mentors used their work to further their own career. Only one woman (compared to 71% of men) considered there were role models in their section and department.
De Saxe Zerden et al.[38] (2015) USA	Understand the lived experience of social work female faculty regarding supports and barriers to professional development	N = 10F social work, non-tenure track faculty members Age: 34 to 56 years 100% had a masters, 1 PhD, 1 enrolled in a PhD	Qualitative phenomenological study In-depth interviews demographic questionnaire and exit surveys	Open and constant comparative coding and negative case analysis	Mentoring was the most frequently cited form of professional development. Mentoring was considered the most helpful and third most needed activity, and the lack of mentoring the fourth most common barrier to professional development. When mentoring was not available, participants felt isolated and discouraged.
Dutta et al. [39] (2011) UK	Pilot mentoring scheme for female academics; evaluate health and attitudinal benefits; compare mentor and mentee pre and post expectations and achievements	N = 46 mentoring pairs All the mentees were female from psychiatry (44 completed pre-mentoring survey, 37 at 6 months and 30 at 1 year). Rank ranged from research assistant to senior lecturer	Mixed method Quantitative: Single arm, pre-post-test (baseline, 6 months and 1 year) Qualitative: expected gain from the mentorship process	Paired t-tests, McNemar’s test, content analysis and charting	With mentoring, self-esteem, self-efficacy and job-related wellbeing improved and work–family conflict reduced at 1-year follow-up. Mentoring produced no improvement in job satisfaction. Benefits to mentees: improved confidence and assertiveness, receipt of support and encouragement, and space to reflect on career goals, pre-mentoring expectations of career progress not achieved at 1-year follow-up.
Elliott et al. [40] (2010) USA	Report how native American women in medical faculty describe personal and professional success to better inform mentoring	N = 5F Native American women academics and physicians; age range 42–60 years	Qualitative Open-ended interviews	Unified coding system, concurrent and continuous data collection and analysis until saturation	Mentoring relationships had positive impact on personal and professional success. Women described benefits of mentoring as emotional support, role modelling, problem solving, help negotiating the system, and referrals for personal matters. Mentoring was considered beneficial at beginning of career though needs shifted with life’s circumstances.
Files et al.[41] (2008) USA	Assess outcomes of a facilitated peer mentorship program for female faculty	N = 4F physician instructors	Single arm, pre-post-test (baseline, and 10 months follow-up) Self-assessment and skill acquisition survey	Descriptive comparison of pre and post-test scores	10-month follow-up found 30% improvement in satisfaction with academic accomplishments, achievement of skills needed for advancement and belief in writing skills. 3 co-authored 3 peer-reviewed manuscripts and all 4 achieved promotion.
Fleming et al. [42] (2015) USA	Explore the efficacy of a faculty development mentoring program for early career faculty	N = 104 (69F) junior medical faculty 48 completed baseline, 43 completed follow-up and 27 completed both	Single arm, pre-post-test (baseline, and 18 months follow-up)	Wilcoxin rank-sum test, Wilcoxin signed rank test, Linear regression and network analysis	Increase in self-reported knowledge, skills and attitudes in professional development and scholarship (p < .05). Female faculty demonstrated greater improvement compared to male faculty with regard to professional development (p < .05).
Foster et al. [43] (2000) USA	Determine how faculty’s perceptions of medical school gender climate differ by gender, track, rank and department	N = 507 (only 497 provided gender data -127F) faculties of medicine	Cross-sectional survey	Fisher’s exact two-tailed test	75% male and 69% female assistant professors had mentors. Both genders across all ranks indicated satisfaction with mentors on facilitating their professional development and revision of their progress. Women more likely to be mentored by men: 100% full professors, 74% associate professors and 65% assistant professors. < 5% of men had female mentors. Women were more likely to feel they were used to further their mentors’ careers.
Jeffers and Mariani [44] (2017) USA	Explore the influence of a formal mentoring program on career satisfaction of novice nurse faculty	N = 124 (118F) working as faculty for five years or less. Age: Mean 47.2 years (range 30 to 67) 47.6% master’s degrees, 32.3% PhD, and 20.2% Doctor of Nursing practice degree. 81.5% non-tenure track	Mixed method Cross-sectional survey with open-ended questions	Chi square test, t-test and content analysis	31% were mentored, and 71.8% of these found mentoring supportive and valuable. No statistically significant differences in career satisfaction scores and intent to stay. Most nurses considered transitioning from a clinical role to academia difficult and experienced frustrations working in an unfamiliar environment without adequate mentorship support. Participants without mentors and those with unhelpful mentors sought alternatives such as ‘trial and error’ (e.g. informal mentoring).
Koopman & Thiedke [45] (2005) USA	Investigate the attitudes of family medicine department chairs towards mentoring emphasising female and minority faculty	N = 13 (4F) chairs of Department of Family Medicine; years within the medical department ranged from 2–16 years; years as chair ranged from 2–22 years	Qualitative Semi-structured interviews	Thematic analysis using immersion crystallization technique and consensus	No consensus on whether women mentees should be paired with male or female mentors, though several felt that female mentees would benefit from other women’s advice. Chairs suggested multiple mentors for a female faculty member (e.g. male mentor for her interest area and female mentor for lifestyle issues). Concern for trust and vulnerability of mentee (e.g. boundary crossing in male/female pairing). Lack of senior women to mentor junior women.
Levine et al. [46] (2011) USA	Understand perspectives of female physicians who left academic medicine	N = 20F physicians who had left academic institution Faculty members for a mean of 3.3 years 8 were instructors and 12 assistant professors when they left	Qualitative Semi- structured interviews	Categorical analysis, individual and comparative coding	Poor mentoring or lack of mentorship was a key factor in women deciding to leave academic medicine. Lack of mentorship created a sense of dissatisfaction, frustration and discouragement with work and was a barrier to career advancement and productive research career. Inability to identify a committed mentor impeded research/grant activity.
Mayer et al. [47] (2014) USA	Evaluate long term impact of a facilitated peer mentoring program on academic achievements	N = 33F instructors and assistant professors from faculties of medicine participated in facilitated peer mentoring program for 1 year 16 participants completed both pre- and post-participation survey	Single arm, pre-post-test (baseline, and 1.25 to 6 years (median, 4 years) follow-up) Self-assessment survey on academic skills and career goals	Paired t-tests	Peer mentoring program showed long-term improvement in perceived mastery of academic skills, academic promotion and increased academic activity, including peer-reviewed outputs. Follow-up participants perceived program positively with 44% continuing to work with original peer mentoring group.
McGuire et al. [48] (2004) USA	Understand female physicians’ perceptions of gender discrimination and their needs for academic success	N = 163F medical faculty Mean age: 42.5 years 86% full time	Cross-sectional survey	One-way ANOVA, Tukey follow-up tests and independent t-tests	Mentoring was identified as the third most important need for female medical academics for grant preparation and career advancement.
McMains et al. [49] (2018) USA	Explore the prevalence and effects of mentorship, including whether sex differences exist among faculty at a military academic center	N = 104 (34F) academic medicine faculties of military academic institutions Internal medicine, paediatrics and surgery specialities were most common	Cross-sectional survey	Chi square test, Fisher exact test, Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis test, and logistic regression	42.1% of faculty reported currently having a mentor (53.1%F and 38.6%M, P = 0.17). Women were significantly less likely (27%) to receive formal mentorship at their first military station compared to men (44%), (Odds ratio 0.38; P = 0.049). Women considered mentorship helped to develop clinical skills, academic promotion, understand department/institution, clarify goals and research. No significant gender difference on perceived effectiveness of mentorship during residency training or as a new staff member.
Ramanan et al. [50] (2002) USA	Describe prevalence of mentoring in hospitals and institutions and identify specific factors associated with mentoring	N = 2131 (827F) assistant professors and instructors in academic medicine	Cross-sectional survey	Chi square and logistic regression	41% of women and 38% of men had an academic mentor. 50% of women and 53%of men were satisfied with mentorship. No significant gender difference for having a current mentor and satisfaction with mentoring. ‘Taking into account gender issues’ mentorship was equally important for women and men.
Seemann et al. [51] (2016) Canada	Explore career satisfaction and advancement for women in academic surgery	N = 81F surgeons 86% were aged 36 to 55 years Rank ranged from lecturer/instructor to professor with assistant professor (46%) most common; Years in practice ranged from 1 to > 15 years	Cross-sectional survey with open text-boxes	Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis	79% had at least one mentor; 89% of mentors were men; 95% of mentors were another surgeon; 54% wanted better mentoring. Many participants wanted more women as mentors for advice on balancing career, family life and personal goals. Lack of appropriate mentorship was the major challenge for women in academic surgery for career satisfaction and advancement.
Simon et al. [52] (2004) USA	Examine the experiences of African American women in leadership roles in social work education as protégés and mentors	N = 14F deans and directors of social work programs Age:> 40 years	Cross-sectional survey	Descriptive statistics	All participants had a mentor during their career; 50% had mentors at ages 25–30 years; 37% had mentors at 30–35 years. Mentor served career functions (challenging assignments, opportunities for exposure and visibility); and psychosocial functions (sense of caring and helpful advice). Career mentoring was considered more important than psychosocial mentoring.
Sonnad & Colletti [53] (2002) USA	Identify roles women are fulfilling in academic surgery and obstacles to their success	N = 724 (386F) academic surgeons 73% men and 44% women were senior faculty; 52% women and 61% men in tenured tracked positions	Cross-sectional survey	Descriptive statistics and t-tests	67% women and 54% men reported having a mentor; 97% men and 79% women had a male mentor; 2% men and 15% women had female mentors; 2% men and 6% women had both a male and female mentor. Men and women reported receiving equal critique for scientific and clinical work. 70% of men and women reported mentor actively fostered their career; 31% of women and 42% of men reported mentors utilised mentee’s work to advance their own career. 38% of women and 65% of men agreed there were good role models in their department.
Steele et al. [54] (2013) Canada	Explore views of junior faculty to inform mentorship program development	N = 175 (59F) junior medical faculty in clinical departments, among which 8 (4F) participated in focus groups and 19 (10F) in interview Majority (138) were assistant professors	Mixed method Cross-sectional survey, focus group and interview	Descriptive statistics, content and thematic analysis	Most female faculty reported having mentors of the opposite sex. Females identified lack of researcher role model as one of the major challenges. Females preferred mentors/role models of similar age and wanted advice on promotion and work-life balance, while males valued advice on finance and grants.
Straus et al. [55] (2009) Canada	To explore mentor–mentee relationships among people who had early career support	N = 28 (21 (4F) mentees and 7 male mentors) Mentees were population health or research clinician investigators awarded early career support	Qualitative Semi-structured interviews	Grounded theory approach using open, axial and selective coding	Male and female participants considered good mentorship vital to career success with most experiencing positive mentoring. Responses were mixed about whether there is a need for gender matching between the mentor and mentee. Female mentees identified challenge of finding mentors who could provide guidance around work-life balance and timing of maternity leave.
Turnbull & Roberts [56] (2005) Australia	Investigate the relationship of mentoring to scholarly productivity among nurse academics	N = 156 (128F) full-time nurse academics	Cross-sectional survey with opportunities to comment Stratified random sampling	Correlations, multiple regressions and thematic analysis	Significantly higher proportion of women (90%) perceived mentoring personally important compared to men (64%) (p = 0.001). Participants perceived mentoring less important as academic rank increased. The major challenges of mentoring were teaching workload and non-supportive cultural climate (non-collegial, exclusive and competitive; lack of incentives and rewards). Paucity of mentorship not confined to female academics. In female dominant professions, such as nursing, mentorship to men is even more important.
Varkey et al. [57] (2012) USA	Examine the impact of facilitated peer mentoring on scholarly output	N = 19F from department of medicine (6 assistant professors, 11 academic instructors, 1 clinician and 1 nurse) participated in one-year peer mentoring program Average years in faculty: 6.2, range 1.5–22 years;	Single arm, pre-post-test (baseline and 1 year follow-up) Self-assessment survey on academic skills, self-efficacy, and career satisfaction	Paired t-test	After 12 month mentoring program, 9 papers submitted for publication, 2 faculty pursued advanced degrees, one was promoted, and five submitted successful grant applications. There was a significant increase in satisfaction in academic achievement, academic skills, confidence, effective networking and identifying an effective mentor.
Wasserstein et al. [58] (2007) USA	Explore multiple aspects of mentoring in academic medicine in relation to faculty rank, track and gender	N = 1046 (262F) faculty from School of Medicine. 388 tenure track, 128 research track 476 assistants, 278 associates and 286 professors	Cross-sectional survey	Chi square, correlation, and logistic regression	No difference in having mentor between male and female assistant professors, but in case of associate professors, a larger proportion of women had a mentor. Among the assistant professors, females (68%) less often had men as a primary mentor compared to males (85%) (p < .0001), but among the associate professors there was no difference in mentor gender. A higher proportion of female associate professors had multiple mentors. There were no significant differences in satisfaction with mentoring between men and women or between those with a mentor of the same or different gender. Participants felt that mentors provided more advice than opportunities.
Welch et al. [59] (2012) USA	Describe content, value and ongoing achievements of a mentoring program for women in Emergency Medicine	N = 46F emergency medicine residents, faculty and alumni who participated in mentoring program from 2004 to 2010	Single arm, post-test only Post-test was conducted in 2010	Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis	87% reported mentoring program provided inspiration and guidance and 60% reported benefiting from peer-mentoring relationship. Participants identified social networking, inclusiveness, supportive nature, group camaraderie, and opportunities to connect with women with similar experiences as the best features of the mentorship program. The session on work-life balance was the most appreciated common thread for advancing women’s careers.

Note: F Female participants