Table 1.

Sleep deprivation, which has been recognized as a “public health epidemic” linked to a range of medical and mental health issues.

Health Issues and Impairments Associated with Sleep Deprivation	Comments	References
Hypertension	Sleep deprivation is linked to an increased risk of hypertension	Schlafer et al., 2014 [66]
Cardiovascular incidents	Sleep-deprived people are at greater risk for coronary heart disease	Ayas et al., 2003 [67]
	Increased heart attacks	Janszky and Ljung, 2008 [68]
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)	Sleep deprivation is linked to an increased risk of hypertension	Schlafer et al., 2014 [66]
Depression	Increases the risk of developing depression	Chen et al., 2012 [69]
	Increases the relapse of depression	Howland, 2011 [70]; Okun et al., 2011 [71]
	High reporting of depressive symptoms among students	O’Brien, 2005 [72]; Catrett, 2009 [73]
	Anxiety, depression, and withdrawal increased depression among adolescents	Coulombe et al., 2010 [74]; Pallesen et al.,2011 [11]; Lund et al., 2010 [75]; Roberts et al., 2009 [76]
Obesity	Sleep deprivation is linked to an increased risk of obesity	Schlafer et al., 2014 [66]
	Suffer more obesity	Taheri et al., 2004 [29]
	Increased obesity among adolescents by 80%	Gupta et al., 2002 [77]
Cancer	Linked to an increased risk of cancer	Markt S.C. et al., 2015 [61]; Lehrer S. et al., 2013 [62]
Mortality risks	Die at an early age	Kripe et al., 2002 [78]
Cognitive performance	Impairs visuomotor performance	Paula Alhola and Paivi Kantola, 2007 [79]
	Impairment in saccadic eye movements	Bocca and Denise, 2006 [80]
	Increases rigid thinking, perseveration errors, and difficulties in utilizing new information in complex tasks	Harrison and Horne, 1999 [81]
	Affects high-level cognitive executive functions	Beebe, 2011 [82]
Memory	Impaired performance in probed force memory recall and memory search	Wright and Badia, 1999 [83] McCarthy and Waters, 1997 [84]
	Deterioration of temporal memory for recall of faces after 36 h of sleep deprivation	Harrison and Horne, 2000 [85]
Mood	Suffer negative moods	Dinges et al., 1997 [86]
Thinking	Sleep loss produces temporary changes in cerebral metabolism, cognition, emotion, and behavior consistent with mild prefrontal lobe dysfunction	Killgore et al., 2008 [87]
Learning and academic performance	Poor declarative and procedural learning in students, but once sleep was optimized, improvement in academic performance noted	Curcio et al., 2006 [88]
Vigilance	Feedback blunting could be caused by general, downstream impairments from loss of vigilant attention due to sleep deprivation	Lim and Dinges, 2010 [89]
Reaction time	Greater subjective reliance on avoidance as a coping strategy was associated with greater deterioration in performance	Saadat et al., 2017 [90]
Personal injury	Decreased duration led to increased work-related injury	Lombardi et al., 2010 [91]
Traffic accidents	Increased risk of traffic accidents	de Mello et al., 2013 [92]; Pandi-Perumal et al., 2006 [93]
	Increased traffic accidents among doctors under study	Steele et al., 1999 [94]; Schlafer et al., 2014 [66]
	More likely to be involved in vehicular crashes	Drake et al., 2010 [95]
	Increased auto accidents	Coren, 1996 [96]
	Increased car accidents among adolescents	National sleep foundation, 2006 [97]
Industrial accidents	Increased workplace injuries	Barnes and Wagner, 2009 [98]; Lahti et al., 2006 [99]; Kantermann et al., 2007 [100]
Medical errors	Sleep disturbances and internship-enforced short sleep increased risk of depression development and chronicity and medical errors	Kalmbach et al. 2017 [101]
Decision making	Deterioration in decision-making	Linde et.al., 1999 [102]
	Less effective in making decisions	Killgore et al., 2006 [103]
	Affects decision-making	Harrison, 2000 [85]
Moral judgement	Moral reasoning was severely impaired during partial sleep deprivation	Olsen et. al., 2010 [104]
	Lack of sleep is associated with low moral awareness	Christopher Barnes et al., 2014 [105]