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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2019 Apr 22.
Published in final edited form as: Child Abuse Negl. 2018 Sep 7;85:1–8. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.08.022

Table 2.

Univariate analyses of sociodemographic factors and physical child punishment by survey year

2006 OR (95% CI) 2011 OR (95% CI) 2014 OR (95% CI) Interaction by year P-value1
Wealth index (quintiles)
  1 (Poorest) 0.75***
(0.62, 0.91)		 1.53***
(1.32, 1.78)		 1.67***
(1.42, 1.98)		 <0.001
  2 (Second) 1.03
(0.86, 1.26)		 1.28***
(1.09, 1.49)		 1.48***
(1.24, 1.77)		 0.008
  3 (Middle) 1.04
(0.85, 1.25)		 1.36***
(1.16, 1.58)		 1.43***
(1.20, 1.71)		 0.017
  4 (Fourth) 0.91
(0.74, 1.11)		 1.26***
(1.08, 1.46)		 1.25**
(1.05, 1.48)		 0.020
  5 (Richest) Ref Ref Ref
Gender of household head
  Female 1.16*
(0.99, 1.36)		 0.94
(0.84, 1.06)		 1.10
(0.97, 1.25)		 0.604
  Male Ref Ref Ref
Household size 0.99
(0.95, 1.03)		 1.01
(0.98, 1.04)		 1.00
(0.96, 1.03)
Ethnicity
  Kinh/Chinese 1.38***
(1.18, 1.60)		 0.98
(0.86, 1.11)		 0.90
(0.78, 1.04)		 <0.001
  Other Ref Ref Ref
Religion
  None Ref Ref Ref
  Any (Buddhism, Christian Catholic, Cao Dai, Hoa Hao) 1.37***
(1.16, 1.62)		 1.07
(0.97, 1.19)		 1.30***
(1.15, 1.48)		 0.647
Education of household head
  Completed primary or less 1.10
(0.94, 1.28)		 1.21***
(1.05, 1.41)		 1.31**
( 1.11, 1.54)		 0.130
  Completed lower secondary 1.15
(0.99, 1.33)		 1.06**
(0.89, 1.28)		 1.12
(0.91, 1.37)		 0.854
  Completed upper secondary or more Ref Ref Ref
  Missing 1.35***
(1.08, 1.70)		 1.68***
(1.32, 2.14)
<0.001
Area
  Urban Ref Ref Ref
  Rural 0.85**
(0.74, 0.98)		 1.20***
(1.09, 1.33)		 1.03
(0.92, 1.15)		 0.038
Attitudes toward physical child punishment
  Believe that physical punishment is necessary Ref Ref Ref
  Do not believe that physical punishment is necessary 0.23***
(0.20, 0.26)		 0.30***
(0.26, 0.35)		 0.27***
(0.23, 0.32)		 0.104
  Don’t know 0.74*
(0.53, 1.04)		 0.80
(0.38, 1.64)		 0.068
  Missing 0.02***
(0.00, 0.08)
1*

p<0.1

**

p<0.05

***

p<0.01.