Table 4.
Main regulators of glucose and fatty acids metabolism in the heart.
| Action | Fatty acid oxidation | Glucose oxidation | Glycolysis |
|---|---|---|---|
| Stimulation | ✓ Fatty acids (Fillmore et al., 2014) | ✓ Insulin (Depré et al., 1998) | ✓ Insulin, epinephrine (Depré et al., 1998) |
| ✓ Adiponectin (Onay-Besikci et al., 2004) | ✓ Epinephrine (Karwi et al., 2018) | ✓ AMP, ADP, Pi, NAD+ (Kolwicz, 2018) | |
| ✓ Leptin (Hall et al., 2015) | ✓ NAD+ (Kolwicz, 2018) | ✓ Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (Madrazo and Kelly, 2008) | |
| ✓ Malonyl CoA decarboxylase (Dyck et al., 2004) | ✓ AMP-activated protein kinase (Bairwa et al., 2016) | ||
| ✓ AMP-activated protein kinase (Lopaschuk et al., 2010) | ✓ Hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (Cerychova and Pavlinkova, 2018) | ||
| ✓ Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1α/estrogen-related receptors (Lee et al., 2017; Rowe et al., 2010; Huss et al., 2004) | |||
| ✓ Forkhead box protein O1(Puthanveetil et al., 2013) | |||
| Inhibition | ✓ Glucose (Fillmore et al., 2014) | ✓ Fatty Acids (Kodde et al., 2007) | ✓ ATP, NADH (Kolwicz, 2018) |
| ✓ Lactate (Kolwicz, 2018) | ✓ ATP, NADH, Acetyl CoA (Kolwicz, 2018) | ✓ Glucose 6-phosphate (Depré et al., 1998) | |
| ✓ Ketone bodies (Stanley et al., 2003) | ✓ Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 (Fillmore et al., 2014) | ✓ Citrate (Fillmore et al., 2014) | |
| ✓ Malonyl-CoA (Fillmore et al., 2014) | ✓ Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (Lee et al., 2017) | ||
| ✓ Acetyl CoA carboxylase 2 (Kolwicz et al., 2012) | ✓ Forkhead box protein O1 (Gopal et al., 2017) | ||
| ✓ Angiotensin II (Pellieux et al., 2009) | ✓ Angotensin II (Mori et al., 2012) | ||