Table 1.
Species of the order Carnivora included in the study with average values of frontation (Ω), convergence (β), and orbitotemporal (Ω) angles, as well as skull length (Sk. Length). The ecological classifications were established following the literature (see text for details)
| Family | Specie | Activity | Habitat | Substrate | α (°) | β (°) | Ω (°) | Sk. Length (mm) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ailuridae | Ailurus fulgens | Nocturnal | Closed | Arboreal | 54.72 | 59.18 | 46.30 | 97.79 |
| Canidae | Canis aureus | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 58.55 | 44.46 | 37.46 | 146.78 |
| Canidae | Canis latrans | Crepuscular | Mixted | Terrestrial | 60.93 | 46.35 | 41.12 | 174.56 |
| Canidae | Canis lupus | Crepuscular | Mixted | Terrestrial | 60.51 | 46.04 | 41.80 | 213.53 |
| Canidae | Canis mesomelas | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 57.58 | 45.85 | 39.02 | 143.40 |
| Canidae | Cerdocyon thous | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 57.78 | 45.56 | 34.22 | 132.64 |
| Canidae | Chrysocyon brachyurus | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 65.97 | 46.06 | 39.51 | 194.33 |
| Canidae | Cuon alpinus | Crepuscular | Mixted | Terrestrial | 58.81 | 44.39 | 35.66 | 164.04 |
| Canidae | Lycalopex culpaeus | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 52.72 | 50.48 | 37.54 | 144.56 |
| Canidae | Lycalopex gymnocercus | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 51.76 | 50.53 | 32.75 | 118.58 |
| Canidae | Lycalopex vetulus | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 55.34 | 48.44 | 35.91 | 101.52 |
| Canidae | Lycaon pictus | Crepuscular | Opened | Terrestrial | 54.26 | 50.24 | 41.06 | 181.34 |
| Canidae | Nyctereutes procyonoides | Nocturnal | Closed | Arboreal | 56.51 | 49.16 | 37.49 | 107.82 |
| Canidae | Otocyon megalotis | Crepuscular | Opened | Terrestrial | 59.01 | 42.95 | 34.50 | 102.53 |
| Canidae | Speothos venaticus | Diurnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 53.66 | 50.01 | 34.24 | 123.53 |
| Canidae | Urocyon cinereoargenteus | Nocturnal | Closed | Arboreal | 66.15 | 41.93 | 40.86 | 106.80 |
| Canidae | Vulpes chama | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 59.99 | 40.95 | 44.14 | 90.62 |
| Canidae | Vulpes lagopus | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 54.89 | 45.37 | 34.24 | 123.10 |
| Canidae | Vulpes macrotis | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 54.14 | 47.56 | 34.10 | 108.44 |
| Canidae | Vulpes velox | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 55.05 | 45.58 | 34.93 | 103.34 |
| Canidae | Vulpes vulpes | Nocturnalr | Mixted | Terrestrial | 51.66 | 49.20 | 34.08 | 140.85 |
| Canidae | Vulpes zerda | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 56.32 | 45.84 | 35.38 | 87.38 |
| Eupleridae | Cryptoprocta ferox | Nocturnal | Closed | Arboreal | 54.13 | 46.40 | 30.54 | 103.63 |
| Eupleridae | Eupleres goudotii | Crepuscular | Closed | Terrestrial | 53.20 | 42.84 | 22.12 | 79.09 |
| Eupleridae | Fossa fossana | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 50.14 | 46.66 | 40.53 | 84.80 |
| Felidae | Acinonyx jubatus | Diurnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 72.38 | 41.65 | 52.77 | 155.01 |
| Felidae | Caracal caracal | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 64.27 | 48.95 | 48.15 | 108.82 |
| Felidae | Homotherium serum † | – | – | – | 66.93 | 37.24 | 37.36 | 264.14 |
| Felidae | Leopardus colocolo | Diurnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 67.27 | 47.61 | 47.84 | 83.86 |
| Felidae | Leopardus geoffroyi | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 65.75 | 45.05 | 41.53 | 94.19 |
| Felidae | Leopardus guigna | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 67.90 | 43.11 | 42.17 | 79.89 |
| Felidae | Leopardus pardalis | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 66.53 | 51.38 | 49.70 | 120.06 |
| Felidae | Leopardus wiedii | Nocturnal | Closed | Arboreal | 67.61 | 49.91 | 51.60 | 83.00 |
| Felidae | Leptailurus serval | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 65.80 | 48.11 | 50.01 | 105.69 |
| Felidae | Lynx canadensis | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 66.01 | 43.93 | 44.72 | 103.00 |
| Felidae | Lynx lynx | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 65.67 | 44.97 | 48.53 | 129.72 |
| Felidae | Lynx pardinus | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 70.03 | 45.10 | 49.39 | 111.71 |
| Felidae | Lynx rufus | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 72.52 | 43.81 | 51.64 | 101.77 |
| Felidae | Panthera leo | Nocturnal | Abierta | Terrestrial | 53.41 | 53.25 | 39.95 | 278.68 |
| Felidae | Panthera onca | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 57.42 | 57.28 | 45.44 | 207.86 |
| Felidae | Panthera pardus | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 59.19 | 55.33 | 46.96 | 165.04 |
| Felidae | Panthera tigris | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 58.24 | 54.97 | 45.94 | 288.63 |
| Felidae | Pardofelis marmorata | Diurnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 69.35 | 51.69 | 56.01 | 79.42 |
| Felidae | Prionailurus bengalensis | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 60.13 | 53.24 | 48.12 | 89.56 |
| Felidae | Prionailurus viverrinus | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 63.07 | 50.74 | 43.43 | 111.24 |
| Felidae | Prionailurus rubiginosus | Nocturnal | Closed | Arboreal | 62.20 | 49.99 | 45.29 | 61.20 |
| Felidae | Puma concolor | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 69.12 | 47.80 | 46.61 | 169.57 |
| Felidae | Puma yagouarundi | Diurnal | Mixted | Arboreal | 67.99 | 45.55 | 42.96 | 80.46 |
| Felidae | Smilodon fatalis † | – | – | – | 70.33 | 38.19 | 41.08 | 281.28 |
| Herpestidae | Herpestes edwardsi | Diurnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 67.57 | 34.77 | 27.76 | 64.24 |
| Herpestidae | Herpestes ichneumon | Diurnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 68.62 | 35.36 | 29.55 | 69.80 |
| Herpestidae | Herpestes javanicus | Diurnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 72.73 | 32.04 | 30.31 | 69.80 |
| Herpestidae | Mungos mungo | Diurnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 66.29 | 37.76 | 26.89 | 63.50 |
| Herpestidae | Suricata suricatta | Diurnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 71.15 | 41.79 | 44.01 | 51.57 |
| Hyaenidae | Crocuta crocuta | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 63.20 | 38.20 | 32.92 | 105.97 |
| Hyaenidae | Hyaena hyaena | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 59.26 | 42.96 | 43.18 | 249.23 |
| Hyaenidae | Proteles cristata | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 68.58 | 41.69 | 42.77 | 115.53 |
| Mustelidae | Aonyx capensis | Diurnal | Closed | Aquatic | 55.63 | 49.08 | 38.69 | 113.76 |
| Mustelidae | Eira barbara | Diurnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 64.97 | 46.62 | 41.35 | 103.14 |
| Mustelidae | Enhydra lutris | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 57.63 | 41.75 | 19.94 | 123.24 |
| Mustelidae | Galictis vittata | Diurnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 60.84 | 43.51 | 30.44 | 80.24 |
| Mustelidae | Ichneuma striatus | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 57.91 | 46.65 | 30.24 | 61.95 |
| Mustelidae | Ichneumia albicauda | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 68.75 | 37.14 | 33.95 | 87.85 |
| Mustelidae | Lutra lutra | Nocturnal | Mixted | Aquatic | 48.01 | 42.13 | 45.57 | 218.39 |
| Mustelidae | Martes americana | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 56.31 | 42.49 | 24.28 | 66.55 |
| Mustelidae | Martes foina | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 60.62 | 45.27 | 36.94 | 74.83 |
| Mustelidae | Martes pennanti | Crepuscular | Closed | Terrestrial | 55.88 | 48.50 | 32.75 | 101.08 |
| Mustelidae | Meles meles | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 56.70 | 46.63 | 33.05 | 119.47 |
| Mustelidae | Mephitis mephitis | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 62.35 | 39.11 | 24.57 | 61.57 |
| Mustelidae | Mustela nigripes | Nocturnal | Opened | Terrestrial | 49.21 | 49.18 | 26.41 | 63.41 |
| Mustelidae | Pteronura brasiliensis | Diurnal | Mixted | Aquatic | 38.96 | 55.40 | 15.61 | 142.31 |
| Mustelidae | Taxidea taxus | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 50.72 | 51.32 | 23.59 | 115.57 |
| Odobenidae | Odobenus rosmarus | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 65.67 | 25.86 | 12.15 | 332.06 |
| Otariidae | Arctocephalus australis | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 50.90 | 43.94 | 10.65 | 194.88 |
| Otariidae | Callorhinus ursinus | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 43.58 | 57.89 | 9.13 | 159.70 |
| Otariidae | Eumetopias jubatus | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 66.03 | 30.09 | 20.25 | 342.61 |
| Otariidae | Otaria flavescens | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 61.87 | 33.29 | 17.58 | 269.34 |
| Otariidae | Zalophus californianus | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 56.12 | 38.26 | 11.31 | 205.09 |
| Phocidae | Cystophora cristata | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 36.81 | 61.32 | 18.28 | 225.32 |
| Phocidae | Erignathus barbatus | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 35.75 | 60.26 | 14.97 | 109.43 |
| Phocidae | Histriophoca fasciata | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 38.08 | 55.15 | 9.62 | 179.86 |
| Phocidae | Hydrurga leptonyx | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 40.88 | 52.88 | 11.45 | 347.21 |
| Phocidae | Leptonychotes weddellii | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 36.20 | 57.04 | 19.64 | 281.83 |
| Phocidae | Lobodon carcinophaga | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 49.62 | 44.46 | 6.03 | 233.94 |
| Phocidae | Mirounga angustirostris | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 31.44 | 61.98 | 11.37 | 378.88 |
| Phocidae | Mirounga leonina | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 34.03 | 61.46 | 13.77 | 355.16 |
| Phocidae | Monachus monachus | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 40.93 | 58.13 | 17.73 | 242.13 |
| Phocidae | Monachus tropicalis | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 38.00 | 61.46 | 20.65 | 258.85 |
| Phocidae | Pagophilus groenlandicus | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 33.48 | 59.65 | 5.55 | 197.77 |
| Phocidae | Phoca vitulina | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 36.25 | 59.39 | 8.10 | 156.24 |
| Phocidae | Pusa hispida | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 30.01 | 66.10 | 9.89 | 149.38 |
| Procyonidae | Bassaricyon alleni | Crepuscular | Closed | Arboreal | 65.85 | 48.31 | 44.92 | 71.42 |
| Procyonidae | Bassaricyon gabbii | Nocturnal | Closed | Arboreal | 68.43 | 47.94 | 50.80 | 73.31 |
| Procyonidae | Nasua narica | Diurnal | Closed | Arboreal | 64.12 | 40.24 | 29.63 | 61.83 |
| Procionidae | Nasua nasua | Diurnal | Closed | Arboreal | 54.10 | 46.80 | 26.49 | 101.10 |
| Procyonidae | Potos flavus | Nocturnal | Closed | Arboreal | 70.87 | 48.89 | 46.09 | 68.99 |
| Procyonidae | Procyon lotor | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 56.87 | 55.98 | 38.76 | 101.04 |
| Ursidae | Ailuropoda melanoleuca | Diurnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 53.09 | 48.76 | 30.51 | 128.00 |
| Ursidae | Helarctos malayanus | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 71.59 | 48.63 | 52.05 | 238.64 |
| Ursidae | Melursus ursinus | Nocturnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 63.89 | 48.54 | 44.48 | 194.04 |
| Ursidae | Tremarctos ornatus | Diurnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 66.26 | 50.31 | 49.09 | 201.90 |
| Ursidae | Ursus americanus | Diurnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 70.64 | 42.36 | 43.31 | 235.83 |
| Ursidae | Ursus arctos | Crepuscular | Mixted | Terrestrial | 69.55 | 48.76 | 50.75 | 286.83 |
| Ursidae | Ursus maritimus | Diurnal | Opened | Aquatic | 68.68 | 43.94 | 43.86 | 335.63 |
| Ursidae | Ursus thibetanus | Diurnal | Mixted | Terrestrial | 65.44 | 50.36 | 44.88 | 232.76 |
| Viverridae | Arctictis binturong | Nocturnal | Closed | Arboreal | 61.80 | 46.52 | 38.49 | 138.36 |
| Viverridae | Cynogale bennettii | Nocturnal | Closed | Aquatic | 58.60 | 46.61 | 33.67 | 109.50 |
| Viverridae | Paguma larvata | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 48.70 | 57.54 | 41.49 | 116.89 |
| Viverridae | Paradoxurus hermaphroditus | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 52.61 | 59.04 | 34.98 | 102.88 |
| Viverridae | Viverra tangalunga | Nocturnal | Closed | Terrestrial | 52.40 | 45.92 | 30.61 | 112.80 |
†denote extinct taxa.