Table 3.

Fixed Effect Estimates for Multi-Level Model of Differences Between Age Groups in d’ Scores.

Fixed effect	$\widehat{\beta }$	SE	95% CI	χ2	P
Intercept (baseline age difference)	0.463	0.026	[0.409, 0.513]
Younger adult d’ score (slope)	0.257	0.023	[0.212, 0.301]	117.79	< .001
Subject characteristics
Mean age of older adult group	0.006	0.007	[−0.007, 0.019]	0.88	.35
Stimulus characteristics
Stimuli are faces (vs. words)	0.141	0.062	[0.019, 0.263]	5.41	.02
Stimuli are pictures (vs. words)	−0.071	0.044	[−0.156, 0.015]	2.48	.12
Stimuli are texts (vs. words)	−0.208	0.066	[−0.338, -0.078]	9.25	< .01
Positive valence	0.064	0.052	[−0.037, 0.165]	1.63	.20
Negative valence	0.080	0.047	[−0.012, 0.171]	3.05	.08
Study phase characteristics
Auditory presentation (vs. visual)	0.094	0.074	[−0.126, 0.469]	1.59	.21
Bimodal presentation	0.172	0.152	[−0.126, 0.469]	1.40	.24
Production	−0.164	0.153	[−0.464, 0.135]	1.28	.26
Intentional encoding	0.046	0.054	[−0.061, 0.152]	0.77	.38
Self-paced study	0.187	0.086	[0.018, 0.356]	5.11	.02
Self-paced study x intentional encoding	−0.007	0.131	[−0.264, 0.251]	< 0.01	.98
Study time per presentation (s)	0.012	0.009	[−0.005, 0.029]	2.01	.16
Deep orienting task	0.111	0.051	[0.010, 0.211]	4.99	.03
Shallow orienting task	0.066	0.065	[−0.061, 0.194]	1.24	.27
Generation task	−0.139	0.094	[−0.323, 0.045]	2.35	.13
Divided attention	−0.127	0.187	[−0.493, 0.240]	0.47	.49
Number of memoranda	−0.001	0.001	[−0.001, 0.000]	1.90	.17
Multiple study opportunities	−0.070	0.058	[−0.184, 0.043]	1.54	.21
Test phase characteristics
Intervening cued recall	0.196	0.143	[−0.083, 0.475]	1.99	.16
Intervening free recall	−0.196	0.085	[−0.363, −0.030]	5.63	.02
Continuous recognition	0.016	0.127	[−0.233, 0.265]	0.01	.91
Retention interval	0.036	0.007	[0.023, 0.049]	28.47	< .001
Continuous recognition x retention interval	0.033	0.031	[−0.029, 0.094]	1.13	.29
Number of test probes	< 0.001	< 0.001	[−0.001, 0.001]	0.04	.85
Conjunction lures	0.333	0.046	[0.244, 0.423]	53.40	< .001
Component lures	0.144	0.068	[0.010, 0.278]	4.65	.03
Semantically related lures	0.241	0.037	[0.169, 0.313]	42.70	< .001
Featurally related lures	0.037	0.047	[−0.055, 0.129]	0.65	.42
Proportion of lures	−0.117	0.172	[−0.454, 0.220]	0.46	.50

Note. SE = standard error. Positive parameter estimates indicate larger age differences (i.e., older adults especially disadvantaged relative to young adults); negative parameter estimates indicate age differences smaller than the mean (i.e., older adults were relatively less disadvantaged).