Table 4.

Fixed Effect Estimates for Multi-Level Model of Differences Between Age Groups in c Scores.

Fixed effect	$\widehat{\beta }$	SE	95% CI	χ2	p
Intercept (baseline age difference)	0.045	0.014	[0.064, 0.192]
Younger adult c score (slope)	0.128	0.033	[0.018, 0.072]	15.53	< .001
Subject characteristics
Mean age of older adult group	0.005	0.004	[−0.003, 0.012]	1.68	.19
Stimulus characteristics
Stimuli are faces (vs. words)	0.213	0.036	[0.142, 0.284]	34.46	< .001
Stimuli are pictures (vs. words)	0.096	0.025	[0.047, 0.145]	13.89	< .001
Stimuli are texts (vs. words)	0.052	0.038	[−0.023, 0.126]	1.86	.17
Positive valence	0.026	0.032	[−0.036, 0.089]	0.63	.43
Negative valence	−0.008	0.029	[−0.064, 0.049]	0.10	.75
Study phase characteristics
Auditory presentation (vs. visual)	−0.015	0.045	[−0.102, 0.072]	0.15	.70
Bimodal presentation	0.098	0.086	[−0.071, 0.266]	1.37	.24
Production	−0.098	0.086	[−0.267, 0.070]	1.49	.23
Intentional encoding	0.008	0.032	[−0.054, 0.070]	0.08	.78
Self-paced study	−0.018	0.049	[−0.113, 0.078]	0.16	.69
Self-paced study x intentional encoding	0.100	0.076	[−0.048, 0.249]	1.84	.18
Study time per presentation (s)	−0.005	0.005	[−0.014, 0.005]	0.78	.38
Deep orienting task	−0.042	0.030	[−0.101, 0.018]	2.09	.15
Shallow orienting task	0.022	0.038	[−0.053, 0.097]	0.31	.58
Generation task	0.008	0.057	[−0.103, 0.120]	0.02	.88
Divided attention	−0.238	0.111	[−0.456, -0.021]	4.89	.03
Number of memoranda	0.001	< 0.001	[0.001, 0.001]	5.24	.02
Multiple study opportunities	0.010	0.034	[−0.056, 0.077]	0.04	.84
Test phase characteristics
Intervening cued recall	0.028	0.082	[−0.132, 0.189]	0.11	.74
Intervening free recall	−0.044	0.047	[−0.137, 0.049]	0.75	.39
Continuous recognition	−0.137	0.075	[−0.284, 0.009]	3.71	.05
Retention interval	0.001	0.004	[−0.006, 0.009]	0.09	.77
Continuous recognition x retention interval	−0.006	0.019	[−0.043, 0.031]	0.07	.79
Number of test probes	> −0.001	< 0.001	[−0.001, 0.000]	3.38	.07
Conjunction lures	0.078	0.028	[0.024, 0.132]	8.23	< .01
Component lures	0.128	0.041	[0.047, 0.209]	9.74	< .01
Semantically related lures	0.104	0.023	[0.058, 0.149]	20.26	< .001
Featurally related lures	−0.035	0.028	[−0.091, 0.020]	1.72	.19
Proportion of lures	−0.136	0.102	[−0.335, 0.064]	1.39	.24

Note. SE = standard error. Positive parameter estimates indicate larger age differences (i.e., older adults set especially liberal criteria relative to young adults); negative parameter estimates indicate age differences smaller than the mean (i.e., older adults were relatively less liberal)