Table 2.
Meta-analyses of individual and contextual factors for loneliness among left-behind children.
| Effect sizes | Heterogeneity | Publication bias | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| k | r | 95% CI | Z | p | Q | p | I2 | τ2 | Fail-safe N | Eggers test two-tailed p | |
| INDIVIDUAL FACTORS | |||||||||||
| Gender(boy) | 20 | 0.07 | [0.03, 0.11] | 3.13 | 0.002 | 55.63 | 0.000 | 68.84 | 0.01 | 106 | 0.50 |
| Older age | 2 | −0.14 | [−0.22, −0.05] | −3.14 | 0.002 | 0.175 | 0.68 | 0.00 | 0.000 | n/a | n/a |
| Self-esteem | 9 | −0.42 | [−0.51, −0.33] | −8.30 | 0.000 | 71.68 | 0.000 | 88.84 | 0.02 | 1,409 | 0.64 |
| Resilience | 4 | −0.37 | [−0.48, −0.24] | −5.54 | 0.000 | 30.84 | 0.000 | 90.27 | 0.02 | 295 | 0.09 |
| Extroversion | 2 | −0.40 | [−0.48, −0.32] | −8.79 | 0.000 | 0.25 | 0.62 | 0.00 | 0.000 | n/a | n/a |
| Social anxiety | 3 | 0.49 | [0.43, 0.55] | 13.49 | 0.000 | 3.72 | 0.16 | 46.21 | 0.002 | 279 | 0.72 |
| CONTEXTUAL FACTORS | |||||||||||
| Family functioning | 6 | −0.27 | [−0.33, −0.21] | −8.33 | 0.000 | 11.57 | 0.04 | 56.80 | 0.003 | 258 | 0.43 |
| Parent-child relationship | 4 | −0.31 | [−0.36, −0.25] | −10.19 | 0.000 | 0.33 | 0.95 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 101 | 0.77 |
| Both-parent migration | 19 | 0.004 | [−0.02, 0.03] | 0.33 | 0.74 | 16.21 | 0.58 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0 | 0.73 |
| Mother-only migration | 5 | −0.02 | [−0.11,0.14] | 0.25 | 0.81 | 18.85 | 0.001 | 78.78 | 0.016 | 0 | 0.97 |
| Peer relationship | 9 | −0.45 | [−0.56, −0.31] | −5.81 | 0.000 | 137.63 | 0.000 | 94.19 | 0.06 | 1,337 | 0.88 |
| Social support | 8 | −0.40 | [−0.50, −0.28] | −6.15 | 0.000 | 91.87 | 0.000 | 92.38 | 0.03 | 1,072 | 0.28 |
k, number of studies; 95% CI, 95% confidence intervals around the effect size.