Table 3.
Results from multivariate regression analysis: adjusted percentages of childhood undernutrition, anemia, and hazard ratios of under-five mortality by selected factors in India, 2015–16.
| Variables | Undernutritiona |
Anemiaa [% (95% CI)] | Mortalityb [hazard ratio (95% CI)] | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stunting [% (95% CI)] | Underweight [% (95% CI)] | |||
| Planning of births | ||||
| Order 1 & <2 years of IBMFB® | 32.5 (32.0–33.0) | 30.7 (30.3–31.2) | 54.1 (53.6–54.7) | – |
| Order 1 & 2–3 years of IBMFB | 33.0 (32.4–33.6)* | 32.1 (31.5–32.7) | 56.1 (55.4–56.7)* | 0.81 (0.74–0.89)*** |
| Order 1 & >3 years of IBMFB | 35.7 (35.0–36.3) | 33.5 (32.9–34.1) | 57.5 (56.8–58.2)*** | 0.88 (0.80–0.96)*** |
| Order 2 & <3 years of IBBSB | 41.1 (40.6–41.6)*** | 38.1 (37.7–38.6)*** | 60.2 (59.7–60.7)*** | 0.96 (0.89–1.04) |
| Order 2 & >3 years of IBBSB | 32.2 (31.6–32.7) | 30.1 (29.6–30.6) | 55.8 (55.2–56.4)** | 0.61 (0.55–0.67)*** |
| Order 3 & <3 years of IBBSB | 46.8 (46.1–47.5)*** | 43.0 (42.3–43.7)*** | 63.5 (62.8–64.2)*** | 1.11 (1.02–1.21)** |
| Order 3 & >3 years of IBBSB | 37.9 (37.1–38.7) | 35.1 (34.3–35.9) | 59.4 (58.6–60.3)*** | 0.62 (0.56–0.69)*** |
| Order >3 & <3 years of IBBSB | 53.1 (52.4–53.8)*** | 48.4 (47.6–49.1)*** | 64.9 (64.2–65.7)*** | 1.37 (1.25–1.49)*** |
| Order >3 & >3 years of IBBSB | 47.3 (46.5–48.2)*** | 43.5 (42.6–44.4)*** | 62.6 (61.7–63.4)*** | 0.72 (0.65–0.80)*** |
| Age at marriage in years | ||||
| <15® | 46.4 (45.6–47.1) | 42.4 (41.7–43.1) | 60.3 (59.6–61.0) | – |
| 15–19 | 41.2 (41.0–41.5) | 38.4 (38.2–38.7)** | 60.0 (59.8–60.3) | 0.97 (0.91–1.02) |
| 20–24 | 33.8 (33.4–34.2) | 31.7 (31.4–32.1) | 57.1 (56.7–57.5)* | 0.89 (0.83–0.95)*** |
| 25–29 | 27.4 (26.6–28.3)** | 25.5 (24.8–26.3) | 51.1 (50.2–52.1) | 0.89 (0.79–0.99)** |
| 30+ | 25.8 (23.7–28.1)*** | 27.5 (25.3–29.8) | 51.2 (48.6–53.8) | 0.94 (0.76–1.16) |
| Not reported | 46.9 (44.2–49.5) | 44.7 (42.1–47.4)** | 58.2 (55.5–60.7) | 1.29 (1.14–1.47)*** |
| Current age in years | ||||
| 15–19® | 32.8 (31.6–34.0) | 33.5 (32.3–34.7) | 64.8 (63.4–66.2) | – |
| 20–24 | 37.7 (37.3–38.1) | 35.7 (35.4–36.1) | 61.5 (61.2–61.9) | 0.63 (0.53–0.76)*** |
| 25–29 | 38.4 (38.0–38.7) | 35.6 (35.2–35.9) | 57.9 (57.5–58.2) | 0.63 (0.53–0.76)*** |
| 30–34 | 39.3 (38.8–39.8)* | 36.2 (35.7–36.6) | 56.1 (55.6–56.6)* | 0.62 (0.51–0.74)*** |
| 35–39 | 42.8 (41.9–43.6) | 38.9 (38.1–39.7) | 55.3 (54.4–56.1)*** | 0.61 (0.50–0.74)*** |
| 40–44 | 48.6 (46.9–50.2) | 45.0 (43.4–46.7) | 58.9 (57.2–60.5) | 0.71 (0.58–0.87)*** |
| 45–49 | 53.2 (50.1–56.3) | 45.6 (42.5–48.8) | 57.9 (54.8–60.9)** | 0.76 (0.61–0.94)** |
| Mother's BMI | ||||
| Normal® | 37.4 (37.1–37.7) | 33.8 (33.5–34.0) | – | – |
| Underweight | 45.9 (45.5–46.4)*** | 47.9 (47.5–48.4)*** | – | 1.07 (1.02–1.12)*** |
| Obese | 26.7 (26.2–27.3)*** | 21.7 (21.2–22.1)*** | – | 0.96 (0.90–1.02) |
| Not reported | 43.6 (43.0–44.2)*** | 39.5 (38.9–40.2)*** | – | 1.76 (1.66–1.87)*** |
| Mother's anemia | ||||
| Not anemic® | – | – | 50.6 (50.3–51.0) | – |
| Anemic | – | – | 64.8 (64.5–65.1)*** | – |
| Not reported | – | – | 54.3 (50.7–57.8)* | – |
| Place of residence | ||||
| Urban® | 31.3 (30.9–31.7) | 29.6 (29.2–29.9) | 56.1 (55.7–56.6) | – |
| Rural | 41.5 (41.3–41.8)*** | 38.6 (38.3–38.8)*** | 59.6 (59.4–59.9)*** | 0.99 (0.93–1.04) |
| Religion | ||||
| Hindu® | 38.8 (38.6–39.0) | 36.6 (36.4–36.9) | 58.9 (58.6–59.1) | – |
| Muslim | 40.1 (39.6–40.6)** | 35.2 (34.7–35.7)* | 59.3 (58.7–59.8) | 0.99 (0.93–1.05) |
| Christian | 30.1 (28.7–31.5)*** | 27.3 (26.0–28.7)*** | 45.9 (44.4–47.5)*** | 1.43 (1.31–1.55)*** |
| Others | 33.4 (32.2–34.6) | 31.5 (30.4–32.7) | 58.8 (57.5–60.1)** | 1.04 (0.93–1.16) |
| Caste | ||||
| Others® | 30.9 (30.5–31.4) | 28.9 (28.4–29.3) | 54.7 (54.2–55.2) | – |
| SC | 43.1 (42.6–43.5)*** | 39.6 (39.1–40.0)*** | 60.8 (60.3–61.2)*** | 1.19 (1.11–1.27)*** |
| ST | 44.2 (43.6–44.9)*** | 45.4 (44.8–46.1)*** | 63.8 (63.1–64.5)*** | 1.26 (1.17–1.36)*** |
| OBC | 39.0 (38.7–39.3)*** | 35.9 (35.6–36.2)*** | 58.7 (58.4–59.0)*** | 1.03 (0.97–1.10) |
| Do not know/not reported | 34.8 (33.8–35.8) | 30.2 (29.2–31.1)* | 53.1 (52.1–54.2)*** | 1.02 (0.91–1.14) |
| Mother's education | ||||
| Illiterate | 51.1 (50.7–51.5) | 47.2 (46.8–47.6) | 65.0 (64.6–65.4) | – |
| Primary | 43.8 (43.2–44.3)*** | 40.3 (39.8–40.9)*** | 60.7 (60.1–61.2)*** | 0.93 (0.88–0.98)*** |
| Secondary | 33.0 (32.7–33.3)*** | 31.4 (31.1–31.7)*** | 55.8 (55.5–56.1)*** | 0.72 (0.69–0.76)*** |
| Higher | 21.1 (20.6–21.6)*** | 19.1 (18.6–19.6)*** | 49.6 (48.9–50.3)*** | 0.49 (0.43–0.57)*** |
| Father's education | ||||
| Illiterate® | 51.4 (50.2–52.6) | 47.5 (46.3–48.8) | 64.5 (63.2–65.7) | – |
| Primary | 43.4 (42.1–44.8) | 41.2 (39.8–42.5) | 61.9 (60.5–63.2) | 0.90 (0.78–1.02)* |
| Secondary | 35.9 (35.2–36.6)*** | 33.2 (32.6–33.9)** | 57.1 (56.4–57.8) | 0.80 (0.71–0.89)*** |
| Higher | 23.9 (22.8–25.1)*** | 22.4 (21.3–23.6)*** | 51.1 (49.7–52.6) | 0.60 (0.47–0.76)*** |
| Not reported | 38.8 (38.6–39.0) | 36.2 (36.0–36.5) | 58.7 (58.5–59.0) | 0.81 (0.56–1.17) |
| Mother's occupation | ||||
| Not working® | 36.7 (36.1–37.2) | 34.0 (33.5–34.6) | 58.1 (57.5–58.7) | – |
| White collar worker | 27.5 (24.8–30.4) | 23.7 (21.1–26.4) | 49.5 (46.4–52.7) | 0.94 (0.69–1.27) |
| Agricultural worker | 46.3 (44.8–47.8) | 44.2 (42.8–45.7) | 61.5 (60.1–63.0) | 0.86 (0.77–0.97)** |
| Service sector/manual worker | 42.6 (40.7–44.6) | 39.6 (37.7–41.5) | 59.1 (57.1–61.1) | 1.02 (0.87–1.18) |
| Do not know/not reported | 38.8 (38.6–39.0) | 36.2 (36.0–36.5) | 58.7 (58.5–59.0) | 1.06 (0.73–1.53) |
| Wealth status | ||||
| Poorest® | 51.8 (51.4–52.2) | 49.0 (48.6–49.4) | 64.2 (63.7–64.6) | – |
| Poorer | 43.8 (43.4–44.3)*** | 40.8 (40.4–41.2)*** | 59.9 (59.4–60.3)*** | 0.86 (0.82–0.90)*** |
| Middle | 36.8 (36.3–37.2)*** | 33.7 (33.3–34.2)*** | 59.0 (58.6–59.5) | 0.79 (0.74–0.84)*** |
| Richer | 29.5 (29.0–29.9)*** | 27.7 (27.3–28.1)*** | 54.5 (54.0–55.0)*** | 0.72 (0.67–0.78)*** |
| Richest | 22.5 (22.0–23.0)*** | 20.4 (20.0–20.9)*** | 51.9 (51.3–52.5)*** | 0.59 (0.53–0.65)*** |
| Exposure to mass media | ||||
| No® | 45.7 (45.4–46.1) | 42.6 (42.3–42.9) | 61.8 (61.5–62.2) | – |
| Partial | 34.7 (34.4–35.0)** | 32.5 (32.2–32.8)* | 56.9 (56.5–57.2) | 0.92 (0.89–0.97)*** |
| Full | 29.2 (28.7–29.8)*** | 27.0 (26.4–27.6)*** | 54.4 (53.8–55.1) | 0.86 (0.78–0.94)*** |
| Sex of the children | ||||
| Male® | 39.2 (38.9–39.5) | 36.4 (36.2–36.7) | 58.5 (58.2–58.8) | – |
| Female | 38.1 (37.8–38.4)*** | 35.7 (35.4–36.0)*** | 58.8 (58.5–59.2) | 1.18 (1.13–1.22)*** |
| Age of the children | ||||
| 1 year® | 21.8 (21.4–22.2) | 28.0 (27.6–28.5) | 68.5 (67.9–69.2) | – |
| 2 years | 43.0 (42.5–43.5)*** | 35.4 (35.0–35.9)*** | 70.6 (70.2–71.0)*** | – |
| 3 years | 43.0 (42.5–43.5)*** | 38.0 (37.6–38.5)*** | 62.4 (61.9–62.8)*** | – |
| 4 years | 43.7 (43.2–44.1)*** | 38.7 (38.3–39.2)*** | 52.2 (51.8–52.7)*** | – |
| 5 years | 40.3 (39.8–40.8)*** | 39.4 (39.0–39.9)*** | 44.7 (44.3–45.2)*** | – |
| Regions | ||||
| Others® | 32.0 (31.7–32.3) | 30.7 (30.4–30.9) | 55.9 (55.5–56.2) | – |
| EAG | 39.7 (39.3–40.1)*** | 38.8 (38.4–39.2)** | 57.8 (57.3–58.2)*** | 1.41 (1.34–1.49)*** |
| Uttar Pradesh | 46.6 (46.1–47.1)*** | 39.9 (39.4–40.4)*** | 63.4 (62.9–63.9)*** | 2.02 (1.90–2.15)*** |
| Bihar | 48.7 (48.1–49.3)*** | 44.2 (43.6–44.8)*** | 63.6 (63.0–64.1)*** | 1.13 (1.04–1.22)*** |
| Total | 38.7 (38.5–38.9) | 36.1 (35.9–36.3) | 58.7 (58.4–58.9) | – |
| Number of observations | 2,23,011 | 2,23,011 | 2,07,594 | 5,07,265 |
| Log pseudo likelihood | −132135 | −131640 | −127078 | −142369 |
| Wald chi2 | 9130.37*** | 7454.68*** | 7011.4*** | 4470.23*** |
CI, confidence interval; IBMFB, interval between marriage and first birth; IBBSB, interval between birth and subsequent birth; MCA, multiple classification analysis; EAG, Empowered Action Groups.
Estimates are weighted with national women weight; Cox proportional hazard ratios has been presented for under-five child mortality; upper and lower limit of confidence interval have been shown in the parentheses; *P < 0.10, **P < 0.05, ***P < 0.01. ® stands for reference category of the variable.
a
Estimates based on logistic regression and MCA conversion model.
b
Estimates based on Cox proportional hazard regression model.