Table 1.

A framework for research to advance the understanding and implementation of nature-based learning (NBL).

A. Learning outcomes and differential effects

Learning outcomes

How effectively do children learn content and skills through NBL compared with instruction in classrooms where nature is absent? simple • How do schools or classrooms that practice NBL compare with schools or classrooms without nature with respect to academic achievement, graduation rates, and student and parental satisfaction? simple • How do nature-based preschools and kindergartens compare with conventional early childhood programs that emphasize indoor learning in terms of preparing children for school readiness? simple • Are there situations when NBL is more effective and when classroom-based instruction is more effective? simple • How might NBL and classroom-based instruction complement each other? What is the range of learning outcomes influenced by nature? Motivation to learn/knowledge gain/skill development/creativity/curiosity/cognitive processes such as attention, encoding, retention, recall/executive skills such as behavior regulation/social and emotional learning/reduced stress, improved mood and mental health/physical health/academic performance such as test scores and graduation rates/environmental stewardship values and behaviors∗ Does NBL contribute to stewardship values or conservation behaviors? Differential effects based on age, population group, and individual differences

Learning outcomes

How do age and developmental stage influence the relationship between nature and learning? simple • What are key elements of nature experiences important at different ages? simple • What different forms of knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and behaviors develop in nature at different ages? simple • Are there critical windows for the development of different outcomes in nature? To promote academic achievement, personal development and environmental stewardship, what types of nature experiences are most appropriate at different ages? How does NBL affect special populations in terms of learning outcomes? simple • How does NBL affect children from socioeconomically disadvantaged families? simple • Does the impact of NBL differ based on historic relationships with nature grounded in cultural or ethnic background? simple • Are there gender differences in nature’s impact on children? simple • How does nature exposure impact learning for children with special needs such as ADHD, autism or learning disabilities? Are there individual differences in response to NBL? What determines why there may be different outcomes for children involved in the same experience?

B. Mechanisms of influence

What are the mechanisms that underlie the relationship between nature and learning? More focused attention/improved behavior regulation/increased creativity/reduced stress/greater enthusiasm for and engagement in learning/increased physical activity/improved health and wellbeing/calmer, quieter learning context/more cooperative social context/opportunities for autonomous discovery and action/self-perception/self-identity/connection between content and the child’s locality/enhanced sense of purpose∗ simple • What mediator variables explain the relationship between nature and learning outcomes, and what is the influence of different variables separately and in combination? simple • Is it possible to establish that nature impacts learning and development in a causal manner? simple • What moderator variables influence the strength of the relationship between nature and learning outcomes? Do mechanisms vary for different groups, in different contexts? If NBL has such differential effects, why? What are key elements of nature experiences that affect children? Type of natural features/type of activities such as unstructured play and exploration, guided inquiry and adult-led instruction/degree of manipulation of natural elements/duration/frequency/individual or group experience/type of people with the child, such as teacher, parent, naturalist, classmates, friends/degree of teacher preparation and confidence in NBL approaches∗ Does nature bring associated ingredients of learning together in a distinctive way? For example, does it bring opportunities for unstructured exploration, freedom to manipulate natural materials, creativity, and social cooperation together in a unique or synergistic way? How do interpersonal dynamics among children, parents, friends, and teachers influence NBL? How might power hierarchies or social stereotypes based on race, ethnicity, culture, class, gender or age influence NBL? What does nature do to the brain? simple • What are the channels of nature’s effects? Sight/sound/smell/touch/emotion/movement∗ simple • Does the impact of nature on the brain differ based on age? simple • Does nature contact influence the development of the brain in terms of structure or physiology?

What is the impact on learning when access to nature is reduced? Removing recess in spaces with nature/no green views from school windows/more screen time∗

C. Implications for policy and practice

Policy or practice simple What nature-based experiences are most appropriate for different developmental stages of childhood to achieve optimal learning outcomes? simple Can NBL play a role in reducing the opportunity gap and achievement gap between children from more and less advantaged backgrounds? simple How does nature compare with other programs and approaches that compete for educational funding in terms of its effectiveness in enhancing learning? simple What are the effects on learning of the cheapest and easiest ways of bringing nature into schools and day care centers? simple What are NBL best practices in different educational contexts? simple What evidence, messages, and strategies encourage increased demand for NBL and the application of NBL practices by educators, parents and other people simple who have influence over opportunities for children? simple What determines differences in access to nature, green school grounds, and NBL? simple Is NBL a social justice issue?

Preparation and professional development simple What are the best strategies for teachers to use to enhance student learning in nature? simple What are effective practices for preparing and supporting teachers and administrators in the adoption of NBL in their classrooms and schools? simple What are barriers to teachers’ and administrators’ adoption?

Technology augmented learning simple How does technology augment, simulate or mediate NBL? Are there costs as well as benefits? simple How does nature mediated or augmented through technology impact learning compared to experiences of real nature? simple Under what conditions is technology effective in enhancing nature’s impact on learning? simple How can we leverage technology to present nature in new ways for learning? simple How would new technologies function that do not substitute for nature, or for interaction with nature, but add additional forms of interaction?

^∗This list is suggestive, based on current evidence, but not necessarily complete.