Table 3.

Summary of adverse effects associated with PPAR activation

Cardiovascular effects Tumorigenic effects   Others peripheral effects

• Increased risk of myocardial infarctiona , b , c • Increased risk of bladder cancer in patients on long‐term therapy with synthetic PPAR agonistsc , d • Haemangioma and renal pelvic tumoursd • PPAR agonist induced peripheral oedema formation via fluid retentione , f • Increased liver toxicityg • Inhibition of gastrointestinal motilityh • Inhibition of human aortic smooth‐muscle contraction associated with PPARα activationi

^a(Nissen and Wolski, 2007).

^b(Loke et al., 2011).

^c(Friedland et al., 2012).

^d(Aoki, 2007).

^e(Sunder Mudaliar et al., 2003).

^f(Bełtowski et al., 2013).

^g(Floyd et al., 2009).

^h(Capasso et al., 2001).

ⁱ(Staels et al., 1998).