Table 1.

Application of ω-3 PUFA nanoformulations in cardiovascular disease settings

Nanoparticle (NP) type	Chemical form of ω-3 PUFA used	NP size (nm)	EE (%)	Cargo molecule	Zeta potential (mV)	Function of the NP	Experimental model	Mechanisms involved in the NP effects	Reference
ALA-rich* flaxseed oil-based oil-in-water nanoemulsion	ALA-rich (56% by weight) flaxseed oil	138–144	92–98	CER and/or 17-βE	32.30±1.81 (CER) 33.80±2.45 (17-βE)	To improve 17-βE and/or CER internalization in vascular cells	Human EC and VSMC in vitro	Increased CER and 17-βE uptake by cultured cells; increased EC and decreased VSMC proliferation (p38 MAPK inhibition)	17
ALA-rich* flaxseed oil-based oil-in-water nanoemulsion	ALA-rich (56% by weight) flaxseed oil	176	94.6	CREKA and 17-βE	33.80±2.45 (17-βE); NR (CREKA)	To improve 17-βE internalization in vascular cells	Human EC in vitro; IV administration to apoE−/− high-fat diet mice	Increased NO production by EC in vitro; decreased atherosclerotic plaque size in mice; improved plasma lipid profile in mice; reduced ICAM-1, VCAM-1, IL-6, TNF in mice atherosclerotic plaque	18

Note:

^*56% by weight.

Abbreviations: ALA, α-linolenic acid; CER, ceramide; CREKA, cysteine–arginine–glutamic acid–lysine–alanine peptide; 17-βE, 17β-estradiol; EC, endothelial cells; EE, encapsulation efficiency; IV, intravenous; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; NO, nitric oxide; NR, not reported; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acid; VSMC, vascular smooth muscle cells; TNF, tumor necrosis factor.