Table 1.
Neuroprotective action and proposed mechanism of action of progesterone, estrogens, and testosterone
| Hormone | Neuroprotective effects | Mechanism of action | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Progesterone |
Promotes formation of myelin sheath Increases the number of myelinated axons Modifies glial tube organization Stabilizing the blood–brain barrier |
Interact with heat‐shock protein [hsp70, hsp90, and hsp40] ↓IL‐β and TNF‐α in post‐TBI ↑MAPK, ERK, and Akt signaling pathways ↓ Inflammatory response ↓Expression of nitric oxide synthase‐2 |
Baulieu et al. 1996 Ghoumari et al., 2003 Gaichino et al., 2003 Baulieu and Schumacher, 2000 Evans et al. 2004 Wali et al. 2007 Gruenbaum et al. 2011 |
| Estrogens |
Enhances the expression of genes that optimizes cell survival Protection from stroke in experimental animal models Reduces the risk of cognitive decline brain edema and neurological deficits in women Protect neurons against oxidative stress injury, glutamate toxicity, glucose deprivation, FeSO4 toxicity, and amyloid beta‐peptide toxicity Anticonvulsant effects |
↑Expression of anti‐apoptotic gene bcl‐2
↓Expression of BAD gene ↑Extracellular signal‐regulated kinases (ERK) ↑ Phosphoinositol‐3‐kinase (PI3K)‐Akt activation ↑Interaction with p130Cas ↑Interaction with striatin ↑Transforming growth factor‐β (TGF‐β) |
Sampei et al., 2000; Hurn and Macrae, 2000 Simpkins et al., 1997 Catherine et al., 2005 Wise et al., 2005 Nakamura et al., 1996 Goodman et al., 1996 Veliskiova et al., 2007 Gloria et al., 2006 |
| Testosterone |
Neuronal plasticity in the spinal nucleus Excitability in the CA1 region of hippocampus Prevents retraction or increase the length of neuritis from motor neurons Antioxidant and anti‐apoptotic effects |
↑Expression of hsp 70 ↓Apoptotic and rapid cell signaling pathways ↑Signal transduction pathways that have relevance to cell viability in both neuronal and non‐neuronal cells ↑MAPK/ERK signaling |
Nguyen et al., 2010 Tehranipour and Moghimi, 2010 Spritzer and Galea, 2007 Zhang et al., 2010 Ottem et al., 2007 Marron et al., 2005 Nguyen et al., 2005 Yao et al., 2015 |