Table 2.

Studies investigating inflammation in surgical samples from patients with refractory epilepsies

References	Age	Population	Findings
83	Adults	18 TLE with HS	NFkB
84	Adults	TLE (8 HS + 6 non‐HS)	Activated microglia and activation of the classical complement pathway in cellular and perivascular elements in HS
85	Adults	TLE (12 HS + 6 non‐HS)	Neuronal and glial activation of the IL1β system
86	Children	5 TLE	IL1b and miR‐146
87	Adults	6 TLE	COX‐2, TGF‐β, NF‐κB
88	Adults	TLE	TLR‐4 related to seizure frequency
51	Mostly adults	9 FCD, 9 DNT, 9 Ganglioglioma	IL‐1β, IL 1‐RA and IL‐1β receptors correlated with clinical course
49	Adolescents	20 FCD	Activated microglia within the dysplastic cortex
89	Children and Adults	9 TSC	Microglial activation, IL1b, complement cascade activation, focal changes in BBB permeability
53	Children	6 FCD, 5 encephalomalacia, 1 TLE	Astrocyte and Microglial activation IL‐1b IL‐8, IL‐12p70 and MIP‐1β
50	Adults	17 FCD (8 IB and 9 IIA)	Microglia activation mTOR only in FCDIIA IL‐1β and MCP1 mainly in FCD II
52	Mostly adults	6 FCD, 6 TSC, 6 Ganglioglioma	Intralesional overexpression and cellular distribution of HMGB1 and its cognate receptors TLR2, TLR4 and RAGE

BBB, blood–brain barrier; COX‐2, cyclo‐oxygenase 2; DNT, dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumor, FCD, focal cortical dysplasia; HMGB1, high‐mobility group box 1; HS, hippocampal sclerosis; IL1β, InterLeukin 1β, IL1‐RA, IL1 receptor antagonist; IL6, Interleukin 6; mi146, microRNA; mTOR, mammalian Target Of Rapamycin; NFkB, nuclear factor‐kappa B; MCP1, Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1; MIP‐1β, Macrophage inflammatory protein‐1β; TGFβ, Transforming growth factor β; TLE, temporal lobe epilepsy; TSC, tuberous sclerosis complex.