Fig. 8.

Schematic representation of sex-based differences observed in female and male rat and human axons in vitro. (a) Ultrastructural differences in axons were observed with female axons having smaller diameter and less microtubules than male axons. (b) A mathematical model of axon trauma that incorporates the ultrastructural differences demonstrates microtubules in female axons are at greater risk of rupture during trauma given the same applied load. (c) Using an in vitro dynamic stretch injury model, female axons showed larger undulations, greater calcium influx and greater loss of function than male axons exposed to the same injury.