TABLE 1.
Sample characteristics by maternal prepregnancy BMI status (ECLS-B, United States, 2001–2007)1
| Maternal prepregnancy BMI status | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Underweight | Normal Weight | Overweight | Obese | P value | |
| n 2 | 250 | 2150 | 750 | 450 | |
| Maternal sociodemographic variables | |||||
| Age, y | 25.2 ± 0.6 | 27.2 ± 0.2 | 27.7 ± 0.3 | 27.6± 0.4 | <0.001 |
| Race/ethnicity, % | <0.001 | ||||
| White, non-Hispanic | 62.1 | 65.0 | 62.6 | 52.9 | |
| Black, non-Hispanic | 11.8 | 12.0 | 12.8 | 25.3 | |
| Hispanic | 15.9 | 17.8 | 22.5 | 19.9 | |
| Asian/Pacific Islander/Native Hawaiian | 9.3 | 4.5 | 1.6 | 0.8 | |
| American Indian/Alaskan Native | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 1.1 | |
| Married, % | 62.3 | 72.0 | 69.5 | 63.0 | 0.010 |
| Schooling, y | 12.6 ± 0.2 | 13.3 ± 0.1 | 12.9 ± 0.1 | 12.8 ± 0.2 | <0.001 |
| Primiparous, % | 52.6 | 44.8 | 39.5 | 30.6 | <0.001 |
| Utilized WIC services during pregnancy, % | 51.7 | 36.6 | 40.3 | 43.6 | 0.006 |
| Lifestyle variables | |||||
| Smoked during last 3 mo pregnancy, % | 23.4 | 10.3 | 8.0 | 13.2 | <0.001 |
| Maternal weekly exercise3, % | <0.001 | ||||
| 0 d | 46.9 | 40.5 | 41.3 | 47.4 | |
| 1–4 d | 30.7 | 43.9 | 42.5 | 41.0 | |
| 5–7 d | 22.3 | 15.6 | 16.2 | 11.6 | |
| Maternal weight change from prepregnancy,4kg | 9.7 ± 1.1 | 8.6 ± 0.3 | 10.5 ± 0.7 | 8.4 ± 0.9 | <0.001 |
| Child weekly sugar sweetened beverage consumption,3% | 0.21 | ||||
| Never | 26.8 | 29.6 | 27.8 | 24.3 | |
| 1–3 times/wk | 38.3 | 36.0 | 33.6 | 34.3 | |
| 4–6 times /wk | 3.8 | 6.6 | 7.5 | 6.2 | |
| 1 time/d | 18.7 | 14.8 | 19.1 | 19.1 | |
| ≥2 times/d | 12.4 | 12.9 | 12.0 | 16.2 | |
| Child weekly fast-food consumption,3% | 0.26 | ||||
| Never | 23.5 | 24.8 | 23.6 | 22.8 | |
| 1–3 times/wk | 69.8 | 66.3 | 64.7 | 62.6 | |
| 4–6 times/wk | 1.1 | 2.1 | 3.0 | 4.0 | |
| 1 time/d | 3.7 | 4.5 | 5.7 | 8.5 | |
| ≥2 times/d | 1.9 | 2.3 | 2.9 | 2.2 | |
| Child typical weekday screen time,3h | 3.5 ± 0.3 | 3.6 ± 0.1 | 3.6 ± 0.1 | 4.0 ± 0.2 | 0.001 |
| Family lifestyle score5 | 0.003 ± 0.003 | −0.003 ± 0.001 | 0.002 ± 0.002 | 0.007 ± 0.002 | <0.001 |
| Mediating variables | |||||
| Birth-weight-for-gestational age Z-score | −0.42 ± 0.09 | −0.08 ± 0.03 | 0.12 ± 0.04 | 0.13 ± 0.06 | <0.001 |
| Breastfeeding duration, % | 0.012 | ||||
| Never or <1 mo | 26.9 | 26.0 | 30.1 | 37.7 | |
| 1–5 mo | 42.9 | 36.1 | 36.8 | 35.8 | |
| 6–11 mo | 18.6 | 19.7 | 18.4 | 13.9 | |
| ≥12 mo | 11.6 | 18.1 | 14.7 | 12.6 | |
| Maternal exposures | |||||
| GWG, kg | 16.0 ± 0.7 | 15.2 ± 0.2 | 13.9 ± 0.3 | 11.1 ± 0.4 | <0.001 |
| Adequacy by 2009 IOM/NRC recommendations, % | <0.001 | ||||
| Inadequate | 29.8 | 21.8 | 8.7 | 19.0 | |
| Adequate | 42.3 | 40.4 | 30.7 | 28.1 | |
| Excessive | 27.9 | 37.8 | 60.7 | 52.9 | |
| Child outcomes at 5 y | |||||
| BMI Z-score | 0.32 ± 0.09 | 0.54 ± 0.03 | 0.82 ± 0.04 | 1.04 ± 0.05 | <0.001 |
| Weight status, % | <0.001 | ||||
| Underweight | 2.4 | 1.8 | 1.5 | 1.0 | |
| Normal weight | 77.7 | 68.7 | 56.7 | 51.7 | |
| Overweight | 14.1 | 16.9 | 22.5 | 20.4 | |
| Obese | 5.8 | 12.5 | 19.3 | 26.9 | |
1
Values are mean ± SE or percentages. ECLS-B, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort; GWG, gestational weight gain; IOM, Institute of Medicine; WIC, Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children.
2
Sample size rounded to the nearest 50 per data agreement with the Department of Education.
3
Assessed when children were ∼4 y.
4
Weight change from prepregnancy assessed when children were ∼5 y.
5
Based on principal component analysis with maternal smoking during pregnancy, exercise, and weight change from prepregnancy, child sugar-sweetened beverage and fast-food consumption, and screen time.