Table 2.
Prevalence studies
| Reference *If same sample as another study in list | Study design | Study setting | Country setting | Comparison [If yes (Y), describe; no (N)] | Strategy, whether sample size calculation was reported for non-census strategies | Ethics reporting (documented ethics committee approval; described informed consent procedure) | Participants characteristics (sample size, mean age, percent male) *Indicates gender as inclusion criteria | Inclusion criteria (excluding age criteria) | Trial status category (C = over 50% convicted; NC = over 50% not convicted; NC/A = over 50% “awaiting trial”; JI = over 50% youth justice-involved; U = unclear; NA = not applicable; NS = not stated) | Assessment instruments (diagnostic or screening tool) | Primary outcomes (p-value listed if provided in study) | Methods risk of bias score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abdulmalik et al. 2014 [82] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Census | Yes, Yes | 725, 31.1, 98.7% | Awaiting trial and remanded; GHQ-12 ≥ 5 for phase 2 | NC/A *Awaiting trial | GHQ-12 (S), MINI (D) | 56.6% prevalence of mental illness (MINI), assessed after scoring ≥ 5 GHQ-12. Depression 20.8%; alcohol dependence 20.6%; substance dependence 20.1%; suicidality 19.8%; antisocial personality disorder 18%; panic disorder 8.3%; OCD 8.3%; PTSD 3.3%; GAD 2.8%; psychosis 1.1% | Low |
| Agbahowe et al. 1998 [83] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Census | No, No | 100, 31.4, 93% | Convicted; GHQ-30 > 4 for phase 2 | C *Convicted and no other classification (81%), convicted but detained (6%); convicted and condemned to death (13%) | GHQ-30 (S), Psychiatric Assessment Schedule (PAS) (D), SCAN (D) | 34% ≥ 4 score on GHQ-30; 100% of GHQ-30 ≥ 4 cases had DSM IIIR Axis I diagnosis | Low |
| Agboola et al. 2017 [84] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Random, N | Yes, Yes | 94, 28.5, 100%* | Male | NS, awaiting trial and convicted | GHQ-28 (S), Present State Examination (PSE) (D), PULSES (S) | 39% prevalence of psychiatric morbidity (PSE). As measured by PSE, 20.2% of total participants diagnosed with depression; 14.8% anxiety; 3.2% schizophrenia; 1.1% mania; 1.1% OCD. 57.4% participants scored ≥ 5 on the GHQ-28. Of participants with psychiatric diagnosis, 39.7% with co-morbid physical illness (PULSES) | Low |
| Akkinawo 1993 [85] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Random, NS | No, No | 136, NS, 93.4% | NA | NS | API (S), BDI (S) | 20.86% depression (BDI); 35.29% general mood disorder; 30.15% general psychopathology; 26.47% sleep disorder (API) | Medium |
| *Armiya’u et al. 2013 “Prevalence of…” [86] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | NS | No, No | 608, 32.1, 100%* | Males (though unclear); NA for phase 1, > 4 GHQ-28 for phase 2 | NC/A *60% awaiting trial, 40% convicted | GHQ-28 (S), CIDI (D) | 57% psychiatric morbidity (CIDI), administered to those with GHQ-28 score ≥ 4 | Medium |
| *Armiya’u et al. 2013 “A study of…” [87] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | NS | Yes, No | 608, 32.1, 100%* | Males (though unclear); NA for phase 1, > 4 GHQ-28 for phase 2 | NC/A *60% awaiting trial, 40% convicted | GHQ-28 (S), PULSES (S), CIDI (D) | 57% psychiatric morbidity (CIDI), administered to those with GHQ-28 score ≥ 4. 18% prevalence of co-morbid physical illness (comorbid illness indicated by PULSES) | Medium |
| *Beyen et al. 2017 [88] | Prevalence | Prison | Ethiopia | N | Random, Y | Yes, Yes | 649, 27.8, 89.8% | NA | NS | GAD-7 (S), K10 (S), PHQ-9, (S) OSS (S), questionnaire (S) | 83.4% psychological distress (K10); 43.8% signs of depression (PHQ-9); 36.1% anxiety (GAD-7); 45.1% without social support (OSS). 17% suicidal ideation; 16.6% already planned to commit suicide; 11.9% at least one suicide attempt while in prison (questionnaire) | Low |
| *Dachew et al. 2015 [89] (same sample as Beyen) | Prevalence | Prison | Ethiopia | N | Random, Y | Yes, Yes | 649, 27.8, 89.8% | NA | NS | K10 (S), questionnaire (S), MSPSS (S) | 83.4% psychological distress (K10). 43.6% of the respondents feel that they had been discriminated by their families, friends and significant others because of their imprisonment (questionnaire or MPSS, source not stated). 64.7% “yes” reported social support; 35.3 “no” (MPSS) | Low |
| *Dadi et al. 2016 [90] (same sample as Beyen) | Prevalence | Prison | Ethiopia | N | Random, Y | Yes, Yes | 649, 27.8, 89.8% | NA | NS | GAD-7 (S) | 36.1% anxiety (GAD-7) | Low |
| Fatoye et al. 2006 [91] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Census | No, Yes | 303, 31.2, 96.4% | NA | NC/A *81.3% awaiting trial, 18.7% sentenced | GHQ-30 (S), HADS (S) | 87.8% possible psychiatric morbidity (GHQ-30 ≥ 5). 85.3% HADS ≥ 8 significant depressive symptoms | Low |
| Ibrahim et al. 2015 [92] | Prevalence | Prison | Ghana | N | Random and census, NS | Yes, Yes | 100, 37, 89% | NA | NS | K10 (S) | 64% K10 scores ≥ 25 indicating moderate to severe mental distress | Low |
| Kanyanya 2007 [93] | Prevalence | Prison | Kenya | N | Census | No, Yes | 76, 33.5, 100%* | Males, convicted of sex offense | C | SCID (D), IPDE (D) | 35.5% DSM-IV Axis 1 disorder (SCID). 34% prevalence of DSM-IV Axis 2 disorders (SCID and IPDE) | Medium |
| *Mafullul 2000 [94] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Census | No, No | 118, 33.9, 96% | Convicted of homicide | C | Psychiatric record (D) | Psychotic disorders and substance use disorders, including alcohol intoxication, suggested to be held to accountable for 39.8% persons’ offenses. 45% of participants had positive histories of substance use disorders | High |
| *Mafullul et al. 2001 [95] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Census | Yes, No | 118, 33.9, 96% | Convicted of homicide | C | Psychiatric record (D) | 68% of the accused referred for pre-trial psychiatric assessment had killed victims as a result of psychotic motives. Court recognized that alcohol intoxication and psychotic motives accounted for the offenses of 24% of the accused. Study indicates that substance use disorders may have accounted for offenses of 45% of accused | High |
| Majekodunmi et al. 2017 [96] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Random, Y | Yes, Yes | 196, 32.8, 100%* | Male, those with no past treatment for mental illness, no debilitating physical illness | NC/A, 69.4% awaiting trial, 30.6% convicted | SCID-IV (D), Montgomery–Asberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) (S),, Medical history questionnaire (S) | 30.1% depression; mean total MADRS score 23.9 among awaiting trial participants. 35.0% depression; mean total MADRS score 25.5 among awaiting trial participants. From medical history questionnaire, resence of physical complaints (p = 0.014) and chronic illness (p = 0.023) associated with depression among awaiting trial participants; family history of psychiatric illness associated with depression among convicted participants (p = 0.046) | Low |
| Mela et al. 2014 [97] | Prevalence | Prison | Ethiopia | N | Census | Yes, Yes | 546, NS, 94.3% | Convicted of homicide | C | SRQ-20 (S) SCID-IV (D) | 35.5% SRQ-indicated psychological distress. Among 316 participants who agreed to undergo a psychiatric interview for Axis I diagnosis (SCID-IV), 41.8% history of substance use disorder; 25% depression; 10.1% adjustment disorder; 7.6% anxiety disorder; 0.6% PTSD; 0.6% psychotic disorder; 1.6% psychotic disorder due to medical condition; 15.8% personality disorder (SCID) | Low |
| Naidoo and Mkize 2012 [98] | Prevalence | Prison | South Africa | N | Random, Y | Yes, Yes | 193, 30.5, 95.8% | NA | C *62% convicted, 38% awaiting trial | MINI (D) | 55.4% Axis 1 disorder from MINI | Medium |
| Nseluke and Siziya 2011 [99] | Prevalence | Prison | Zambia | N | Random, Y | Yes, Yes | 206, 33.7, 83% | NA | NC/A *74.3% awaiting trial, 23.3% sentenced, 1.9% probation violation, 0.5% parole violation | SRQ (S) | 63.1% mental illness as indicated by SRQ | Low |
| Osasona and Koleoso 2015 [100] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Random and census, NS | Yes, Yes | 252, 33.7, 90.9% | NA | C *57.1% sentenced, 42.9% awaiting trial | SRQ-20 (S), HADS (S) | 84.5% of the respondents had at least one type of psychiatric morbidity (SRQ and HADS combined). Prevalence of general psychiatric morbidity, SRQ-20 score ≥ 5, 80.6%. 72.6% and 77.8% were found to be positive for depression and anxiety symptoms respectively on the HADS | Low |
| Schaal et al. 2012 [101] | Prevalence | Prison | Rwanda | Y (genocide survivors) | Random, NS | Yes, Yes | 269, 48.5, 65.8% (genocide perpetrators); 114, 46.6, 36.3% (survivors) | Perpetrators of the Rwandan genocide, over 18 years in 1994 | C *89.6% convicted, 10.4% not sentenced | PTSD Symptom Scale-Interview (PSS-I) (D), PDS Event Scale (S), Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25 (HSCL-25) (S), suicidality scale from the MINI (S) | Diagnostic criteria for PTSD met by 13.5% perpetrators and 46.4% of interviewed survivors (p < 0.001) (PSS-I). Clinically significant anxiety prevalence 35.8% among perpetrators (HSCL-25); 58.9% among survivors (p < .001). Depression in both groups (46% survivors vs. 41% perpetrators) (HSCL-25). 18.6% perpetrators and 19.3% survivors had suicide risk (MINI). Perpetrators with more severe depression symptoms (HSCL-25) reported high levels of trauma confrontation (PDS) and had not participated in killings | Low |
| *Uche and Princewill 2015 “Clinical factors…” [102] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Random, Y | Yes, Yes | 400, 33.8, 98% | Awaiting trial; BDI-screen positive for phase 2 | NC/A* awaiting trial | BDI (S), SCAN Depression Component (D) | 42% BDI > 10 screen fulfilling the criteria for current depressive disorder. 42% fulfilled SCAN criteria for current depression disorder diagnosis | Low |
| *Uche and Princewill 2015 “Prevalence…” [103] | Prevalence | Prison | Nigeria | N | Random, Y | Yes, Yes | 400, 33.8, 98% | Awaiting trial; BDI-screen positive for phase 2 | NC/A *89% awaiting trial, 5% convicted, 0.1% assigned legal category of “lunatics,” death row condemned 5%, serving life imprisonment jail terms 0.5% | BDI (S), SCAN depression component (D) | 42% BDI > 10 screen fulfilling the criteria for current depressive disorder. 42% fulfilled SCAN criteria for current depression disorder diagnosis | Low |
| Barrett et al. 2007 [52] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Census | Yes, No | 71, NS, 94.4% | Psychiatric referrals | NC *Detained “state patients” accused but found unfit to stand trial or not responsible, referred to forensic ward | Psychiatric record (D) | Schizophrenia (35.2%), mental retardation (22.5%) and psychoses other than schizophrenia (11.3%) most prevalent, followed by bipolar disorder (5.6%). 84.5% not able to stand trial and not accountable; 7% not fit to stand trial and accountable; 8.5% not accountable and fit to stand trial | Medium |
| Buchan 1976 [104] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Zimbabwe | N | Census | No, No | 256, NS, NS | Psychiatric referrals | U *Referrals to hospital | Psychiatric record (D) | Prevalence of schizophrenia 44%; epilepsy 22% | High |
| Calitz et al. 2006 [105] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Census | Yes, No | 514, 30 (median), 94.6% | Psychiatric referrals | NC/A *Awaiting trial, referrals to hospital | Psychiatric record (D) | 46% psychiatric prevalence. | Medium |
| du Plessis et al. 2017 [106] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Census | Yes, No | 505, NA, 94% | Awaiting trial; psychiatric referrals | NC/A *Awaiting trial, referrals to hospital | Psychiatric record (D) | Those not accountable significantly more likely to have mental illness (p = 0.0001) and be diagnosed with schizophrenia (p = 0.0001), intellectual disability (p = 0.0001), and substance-induced psychotic disorder (p = 0.02) than those not accountable. 98% of those found not accountable had mental illness. 66% total sample had known history of substance abuse | Low |
| Hayward et al. 2010 [107] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Malawi | N | Census | No, No | 283, 30.4, 91.5% | Psychiatric referrals | U *Detained in hospital | Psychiatric record (D) | Prevalence of schizophrenia 35.5%; substance misuse 32.5%; 19.8% alcohol and 23% illicit substance; depression 3%; mania or personality disorder 0%; epilepsy 8.1% | Medium |
| Hemphill and Fisher 1980 [108] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Census | No, No | 604, NS, 100%* | Males (though unclear); psychiatric referrals | NC *Pre-trial referrals to hospital | Psychiatric record (D) | 52% substance abuse of drugs, alcohol, or both. Prevalence of psychosis (53%), severe psychopathy without psychosis (21%), and non-psychotic conditions including neurosis, mild personality disorder, eplepsy and mental retardation (26%). More than 70% of patients with psychopathy screened positive for substance abuse of alcohol, drugs or both | High |
| Khoele et al. 2016 [109] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Census | Yes, No | 32, 29.8, 0% | Women; charged with murder or attempted murder, psychiatric referrals | NC *Pre-trial referrals to hospital | Psychiatric record (D) | 59% psychiatric diagnosis; 28% psychotic; 25% mood disorders; 6% substance disorders; 19% attempted suicide | Medium |
| Marais and Subramaney 2015 [53] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Census | Yes, Yes | 114, 32, 87% | Psychiatric referrals | NC *Detained “state patients” accused but found unfit to stand trial or not responsible, referred to forensic ward | Psychiatric record (D) | Past psychiatric history (59%); substance abuse history (71%). 69% psychotic disorders; 44% schizophrenia. Bipolar mania 4%; major depressive disorder 4%; epilepsy 4%. Alcohol the most frequently abused substance (57%); cannabis 47%. 37% reported a history of polysubstance abuse | Medium |
| Matete 1991 [110] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Kenya | N | Census | No, No | 51, 28.8, 90.2% | Psychiatric referrals | NC *Detained in hospital: court referrals to hospital, referred to as “criminal remands” | Psychiatric record (D) | 86.3% mental illness | Medium |
| Mbassa 2009 [111] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Cameroon | N | Random, NS | No, No | 12, 18.3, 66.7% | Convicted of homicide | C *Convicted, detained in hospital | Psychiatric record, ICD-10 criteria (D) | 41.7% schizophrenia; delirium 25%; personality disorder 8.3% | High |
| Menezes 2010 [112] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Zimbabwe | N | Census | Yes, Yes | 39, 35.0, 87.2 | Homicide offense, psychiatric referrals | NC *Detained in hospital: court referrals to hospital, referred to as “criminal remands” | Psychiatric record (D), questionnaire (S) | 84.61% schizophrenia or psychosis; 2.56% personality disorder; 12.82% epilepsy | Medium |
| Menezes et al. 2007 [113] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Zimbabwe, England, Wales | Y (referral patients in England and Wales) | Census | Yes, Yes | 367, 36.0, 91.8% (Zimbabwe); 1966, 29.7, 83.6% (England/Wales) | Psychiatric referrals | U *Referrals to hospital | Psychiatric record, ICD-9 criteria (D), questionnaire (S) | 78.7% of patients in Zimbabwe had a mental disorder diagnosis compared with 51.5% in England and Wales (p < 0.001). 6.3% had personality disorder diagnosis in Zimbabwe; 36.6% in England and Wales | Medium |
| Odejide 1981 [114] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Nigeria | N | Census | No, No | 53, 38.7, 83% | Psychiatric referrals | U *Referrals to hospital | PSP (D) | 75.5% schizophrenia; 5.7% drug-induced psychosis; 18.9% epilepsy (PSP) | Medium |
| Offen et al. 1986 [115] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Census | No, No | 162, 20–40, 0% | Psychiatric referrals | U *Referrals to hospital | Psychiatric record (D) | 82% had psychiatric abnormality, including 34% of total sample with significant psychiatric findings, but these were not considered of a critical enough nature to warrant the label “mental illness.” | Medium |
| Ogunlesi et al. 1988 [116] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Nigeria | N | Census | No, No | 146, 34.5, 98% | Psychiatric referrals | NC *Pre-trial referrals to hospital. Not convicted at time of diagnosis, but later conviction data provided | Psychiatric record (D) | 45% schizophrenia; 4% mania; 3.3% depression; 0.7% paranoid state; 19.5% total drug abuse/dependence; 16.8% cannabis abuse; 2.7% alcoholism; 6.7% epilepsy. 75% had a previous history of psychiatric disorder; 45% admitted a previous history of drug abuse. 48% judged “criminal lunatics” either not guilty by reason of insanity or guilty but insane. 30% discharged by courts; 1 sentenced to death; 1 sentenced to a prison term. 46.3% of offenders absconded from the institution | Medium |
| Prinsloo and Hesselink 2014 [117] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Purposive, NS | No, No | 91, NS, 100% | Psychiatric referrals | NC *Pre-trial referrals to hospital | Psychiatric record (D) | 83.5% at least one mental health disorder | Medium |
| Strydom et al. 2011 [54] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Census | Yes, No | 120, 32.5, 95.8% | Psychiatric referrals | NC *Detained “state patients” accused but found unfit to stand trial or not responsible, referred to forensic ward | Psychiatric record (D) | Most had a history of abusing substances such as alcohol (74%), cannabis (66.7%), tobacco (29.6%) and glue (6.2%). 55.5% diagnosed with schizophrenia; 9.2% bipolar mood disorder; 5.9% psychosis due to general medical condition; 4.2% psychosis due to epilepsy; 3.4% psychosis due to substance abuse; 1.7% delirium; 10% other disorder | Medium |
| Touari et al. 1993 [118] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Algeria | N | Census | No, No | 2882, 30.1, 94.3% | Psychiatric referrals | NC *Pre-trial | Psychiatric record (D) | 11.1% diagnosis of psychosis. 1.4% diagnosis of manic depression | Medium |
| Turkson and Asante 1997 [55] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Ghana | N | Census | No, No | 130, NS, 94.6% | Psychiatric referrals and state patients | NC *Detained in hospital: Pre-trial, convicted, or found unfit to stand trial. Participants were “predominantly patients who had been found guilty but insane or those found unfit to proceed with their trial” due to “insanity” | Psychiatric record (D) and clinical observation by author (S) | 81.6% had a psychiatric diagnosis as indicated by clinical records. At the time of the study, 70.9% of total patients exhibited no florid psychotic symptoms, all patients with a diagnosis of harmful drug use were free from symptoms; 93.8% diagnosed with drug-induced psychosis were fully recovered | Medium |
| Verster and Van Rensburg 1999 [119] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Census | Yes, No | 126, NS, 98.4% | Have homicide offense and psychiatric referrals | NC *Pre-trial referrals to hospital | Psychiatric record (D) | 42.1% had a psychiatric diagnosis | Medium |
| Yusuf and Nuhu 2009 [120] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | Nigeria | N | Census | No, No | 19. 28.9, 73.7% | Psychiatric referrals | NS | Psychiatric record (D) | Schizophrenia was the most common psychiatric disorder (68.4%), co-morbid substance use present in 57.9% | Medium |
| Zabow 1989 [121] | Prevalence | Forensic ward | South Africa | N | Census | No, No | 202, NS, 90% | Homicide convicts | NC *Pre-trial referrals to hospital | Psychiatric record (D) | 15.8% prevalence of “significant psychiatric findings.” Alcohol and drugs were contributory to the criminal behavior in 50% of cases. The number of murders committed increased by 25.2% in 1977–1984 compared to an increase of 115.8% in the number of psychiatric referrals during the same period. Following hospital assessment, 60.4% had no psychiatric diagnosis | Medium |
| Atilola et al. 2014 [7] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | Y (school-going adolescents, age matched but school-going youth slightly younger. Detained youth 18.7 ± 2.4 years old [Range 16–20 years] vs. school kids 18.2 ± 2.5 [Range 15–19 years]) | Census | Yes, No | 144, 18.7, 100% (participants in Borstal home); 144, 18.2, 100% (school-going youth) | NA | JI *Detained in borstal institution in juvenile justice system: classified 52.1% juvenile offenders; 47.9% youth beyond parental control (no offense) | K-SADS-PL (D) | 90% of the justice-involved youth in borstal home reported exposure to at least one lifetime traumatic event, compared with 60% of the comparison group (p = 0.001). Justice-involved youth also had a higher mean number of incident lifetime traumatic events (p < 0.001), and higher prevalence rate of current and lifetime PTSD than the comparison group (p < 0.05). Justice-involved more likely to be victims of violent crime (p < 0.001), have experienced physical abuse (p < 0.001), and be perpetrators of a violent crime (p = 0.002) (K-SADS-PL) | Low |
| Atilola 2012 “Different points…” [122] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | Y (within-institution comparison of youth on criminal code vs. youth in care of state/neglected youth) | Census | Yes, Yes | 158, 17.5, 96. % (criminal code group); 53, 12.5, 74% (in care of state) | NA | JI *75% criminal code or beyond parental control, 25% due to maltreatment/neglect | K-SADS (D) | Conduct/behavior disorders had 63% prevalence among “criminal code” youth vs. 39%, among neglect group (p < 0.001). Prevalence of multiple traumatic events 27% among criminal code youth; 26%, neglect group (p = 0.43). PTSD prevalence 13% among criminal code youth; 22% among neglect group (p = 0.12). Substance use prevalence was 61% among those on criminal code compared to 11% youth detained due to neglect/maltreatment (p = 0.003) (all K-SADS) | Medium |
| Atilola 2012 “Prevalence and correlates…” [6] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | Y (school-going adolescents, age and gender matched, randomly selecter) | Census | Yes, Yes | 60 (in remand home), 60 (school-going), 12.5* (pooled), 66.6%* (pooled) *Only pooled statistics given |
NA | NC *77% in home due to maltreatment/neglect, 10% classified as “offenders,” 13% beyond parental control | K-SADS-PL (D) | 63% remanded participants had at least one lifetime psychiatric disorder compared to 23% control (p < .001); 22% had at least one current psychiatric disorder compared to 3% control (p < .004) (K-SADS-PL) | Medium |
| Atilola et al. 2016 [50] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | Y (within-institution comparison of “criminal code” vs. other groups) | Random, NS | Yes, Yes | 178, 15.19, 61.8% (total participants, pooled) | NA | NC *19.1% classified “young offenders,” 73.6% care and protection of state, 7.3% beyond parental control | K-SADS (D) | Lifetime prevalence rate of abuse of/dependence on any substance was 22.5%. 12.3% alcohol abuse/dependence; 17.9% other substance abuse/dependence. Higher proportion of participants who were remanded under the ‘young offender’ category met criteria for lifetime substance use disorder compared with those under the care and protection and beyond-parental-control category (p = 0.004). Length of staying on the streets or by self was associated with problematic use (abuse or dependence) (p = 0.007) (K-SADS) | Low |
| *Atilola et al. 2017 “Correlations…” [123] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | N | Random, NS | Yes, Yes | 165, 14.3, 75% | NA | NS *Remanded youth: criminal code, neglected/in care of state, or beyond parental control | SDQ (S), PedsQo (S) | 18% abnormal SDQ score suggesting presence of psychiatric disorder; 27% had ‘highly probable’ psychopathology (SDQ). Negative correlation (p < 0.001) between total SDQ scores and overall self-reported quality of life (PedsQo) | Low |
| *Atilola et al. 2017 “Status…” [124] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | N | Random, NS | Yes, Yes | 165, 14.3, 75.2% | NA | NS *Remanded youth: criminal code, neglected/in care of state, or beyond parental control | SDQ (S), CRAFFT (S), questionnaire (S), Audit Protocol (S) | 18.2% general psychiatric morbidity by SDQ ≥ 17; 44.6% prevalence SDQ ≥ 15; 15.8% alcohol/substance use disorder (CRAFFT > 2). 34.3% of the operational staff at the institutions had educational backgrounds relevant to psychosocial services for children/adolescents. Less than a quarter (22.4%) ever received any training in child mental health services (questionnaire and Audit protocol) | Low |
| *Adegunloye et al. 2010 [125] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | N | Census | No, No | 53, 17.3, 100% | NA | JI * Detained in borstal institution in juvenile justice system | GHQ-12 (S), MINI-KID (D) | 67.9% current psychiatric disorder (MINI-KID). GHQ scores not reported | Low |
| *Ajiboye et al. 2009 (same sample as Adegunloye) [126] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | N | Census | No, Yes | 53, 17.3, 100% | NA | JI * Detained in borstal institution in juvenile justice system | GHQ-12 (S), MINI-KID (D) | 67.9% current psychiatric disorder (MINI-KID). GHQ scores not reported | Low |
| *Issa et al. 2009 (same sample as Adegunloye) [127] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | N | Census | Yes, Yes | 53, 17.3, 100% | NA | JI * Detained in borstal institution in juvenile justice system: classified “juvenile offenders” or those “in need of correction” | GHQ-12 (S) | 49.1% GHQ-positive (> 3 on GHQ-12), indicating possible psychiatric morbidity | Medium |
| *Yusuf et al. 2011 (same sample as Adegunloye) [128] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | N | Census | No, Yes | 53, 17.3, 100% | NA | JI * I Detained in borstal institution in juvenile justice system | GHQ-12 (S), MINI-KID (D) | 50.9% had MINI-KID lifetime psychiatric diagnoses. Majority (62.3%) had psychiatric problems in the past 12 months. When all lifetime and current psychiatric diagnoses were collapsed, 98.1% had ‘any psychiatric disorder. 49.1% GHQ-12 > 3, indicating possible psychiatric morbidity | Low |
| Bella et al. 2010 [51] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | N | NS | No, Yes | 59, 11.7, 60% | NA | NC *90% under care and protection of state, 7% beyond parental control, 3% criminal code/“youth offenders” | K-SADS (D) | 100% had significant psychosocial needs presenting as difficulty with their primary support, social environment, or education systems. 97% demonstrated some form of psychopathy | Medium |
| *Olashore et al. 2016 [129] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | N | Census | Yes, Yes | 148, 17.1, 100% | NA | JI * Detained in borstal institution under criminal code or beyond parental control; 40.8% detained for “non-delinquent reason” | MINI-KID (D) | 56.5% met the criteria for conduct disorder (MINI-KID). Number of siblings (p = 0.010) and previous history of detention (p = 0.043) were independent predictors of CD | Low |
| *Olashore et al. 2017 [130] | Prevalence | Youth Institution | Nigeria | N | Census | Yes, Yes | 148, 17.1, 100% | NA | JI * Detained in borstal institution under criminal code or beyond parental control; 40.8% detained for “non-delinquent reason” | MINI-KID (D) | 56.5% met the criteria for conduct disorder (MINI-KID). Substance use, depression, or oppositional defiant disorder not significantly associated with “offender” status. CD is associated (p < .001) with “offender” status | Low |