Table 3.

Family dynamics, Sleep and Hypertension Risk

Author, year	Sample (n, age, age group, race, population, gender)	Study Design	Family variable	Sleep variable	HT marker	Covariates	Results
Jones,2014[60]	N = English 108 children; age 3; 53% male	Cross sectional	Presents of sleep rule, television viewing rule and/or dietary rule	Parent diary: TST	BMI; WC; triceps skinfold thickness; subscapular skinfold thickness		Sleep rule ↑ TST, BMI ns; WC ns.; skinfold thickness ns. TV rule ↑ TST; ↓ BMI; ↓ WC; ↓ subscapular skinfold thickness; triceps ns. skinfold thickness ns. Dietary rule ↑ TST; ↓ subscapular skinfold thickness; BMI ns.; WC ns.; triceps ns.; skinfold thickness ns.
El- Sheikh,2015 [67]	N = US 160 children; age 9.43 at baseline, 1 year follow up 53.1% male; 27% AA, 73% White	Longitudinal	Marital conflict	Actigraph assessed: TST, night time awakenings, sleep activity,SE	RSA-R	BMI, the presence of an illness and the sleep parameter at W1	↑ Marital conflict, ↑ RSA-R, ↓ TST ↑TST ↑ Marital conflict, ↑ RSA-R, and ↓ SE ↑ SE ↑Marital conflict, ↓ RSA-R, and ↓ SE ↓ SE ↑Marital conflict, ↓ RSA-R and ↓ SE ↓ SE ↑Marital conflict, ↑RSA-R, and ↓ sleep activity Sleep activity ↑Marital conflict, ↑ RSA-R; ↓ long wake episodes ↑ Wake episode
Kiel,2015 [63]	N = 51 mother-toddler dyads; T1: 18.96 months old at baseline, follow up at ages 2 and 3; 49.02% male; 82.4% White, 2.0% Latino Americans, 3.9% Asian Americans, 11.8% biracial	Longitudinal	Parental overprotection; parental critical control via questionnaires	Parent reported:Sleep problems at ages 2 and 3	Time 1:Cortisol secretion	sleep problems at age 2, parental overprotection	Over protection Sleep problems ns. critical control Sleep problems ns. Critical control and cortisol secretion = sleep problems at age 3
Gustafsson,2017[68]	N = 292 pregnant US adolescents; Mage =17.81; 88.28% Latina;3rd trimester fetuses; fetuses = 43% female	Cross sectional	Emotional abuse	Sleep disturbance	Fetal heart rate variability	age, ethnicity, income, gestational age	↑ Emotional abuse and ↑ sleep disturbances↓ Heart rate variability
Zilioli,2017[65]	N = 645 Chinese participants; Mage=10.67 years; ages 8-15;51.9% male	Cross sectional	Loneliness via daily diaries and trait loneliness	Adolescent diary:Subjective sleep quality, SOL, # of awakenings,TIB	CAR	gender, parent death, health status, stressful life events, age, negative affect, depression	↑ Trait loneliness ↓ Morning cortisol; ↑ TIB; ↓ sle0ep quality ↑ Daily loneliness Flat cortisol slope; ↑ night awakenings; ↓ TIB

Note. All results refer to child or adolescent’s cardiovascular or sleep outcomes; unless otherwise stated, all sleep parameters were either parent-reported or self-reported; AA = African American; T1 = initial wave of data collection; BMI = body mass index; WC = waist circumference; TST = total sleep time/sleep duration; RSA-R = respiratory sinus arrhythmia- reactivity; SE = sleep efficiency; SOL = sleep onset latency; TIB = time in bed; CAR = cortisol awakening response.