Table 2.

Pediatric populations at increased risk for vitamin D deficiency

• Exclusively breastfed infants without vitamin D prophylaxis

• Infants, children, and adolescents with:

• Malabsorption or maldigestion disorders (e.g., celiac disease, Crohn’s disease, cystic fibrosis)

• Chronic inflammatory diseases (e.g., inflammatory bowel disease)

• Chronic kidney disease

• Chronic liver disease

• On permanent medication with substances that affect calcium or vitamin D metabolism (e.g., antiepileptic drugs, antiviral medication, fungicides, or high dose glucocorticoid therapy which inhibits intestinal calcium absorption and stimulates tubular calcium excretion)

• With very low sun exposure, for example, chronically immobilized children and adolescents

• With a migrant background (through the influence of pigmentation, nutrition, and sun exposure)