Table 1.

Toxic effects on the germination and growth of crop plants.

Plant species	GFNs	Exposure concentration	Exposure time	Toxic symptoms of growth	References
Rice (Oryza sativa)	Graphene	100 and 200 mg/L	16 days	Inhibition of root and stem length, adventitious root number, and root and stem fresh weight	Liu et al., 2015
	rGO	50, 500 mg/kg	30 days	Reduced shoot height and root length, decreased root diameter and number of cells in transverse section	Hao et al., 2018
wheat (Triticum aestivum)	GO	>1000 μg/mL	9 days	Decrease in root length, shoot length and relative biomass; obvious damage to plant tissue structures	Chen et al., 2018a
	Graphene	250, 500, 1000, and 1500 mg/L	30 days	Root hair reduction, oxidative burst, photosynthesis inhibition, and nutritional disorder	Zhang et al., 2016
		200 mg/L	5 days	Inhibition in the number of wheat roots	Hu et al., 2014c
Maize (Zea mays)	GO	100, 500, 1500 mg/L	15 days	Significant decrease of shoot and root weight	Yin et al., 2018
Brassica napus	GO	25–100 mg/L	15 days	Shorter seminal root length	Cheng et al., 2016
		50-100 mg/L		Decrease in fresh root weight
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), red spinach (Amaranthus tricolor and A. lividus)	Graphene	500–2000 mg/L	20 days	Significant inhibition of plant growth and biomass. Decrease in the number and size of leaves	Begurn et al., 2011