. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2019 May 9.

Published in final edited form as: J Clin Psychol. 2018 May 10;74(9):1485–1508. doi: 10.1002/jclp.22634

Table 1.

Randomized Controlled Trials of Mindfulness and Yoga for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Source	Population N = enrolled Age (% women)	Mind-Body Intervention(s) n (Frequency and Duration)	Comparison Intervention(s) n (Frequency and Duration)	PTSD Outcome Measures (Additional Measures)	Pre to Post Effect Sizes (Underlined treatment indicates greater symptom reductions)
MINDFULNESS (8 ARTICLES)
Bormann et al. (2008)	Veterans with PTSD N = 33 Mean age = 56 (0% women)	Mantram Repetition (MR) Randomized: n = 14 Completed: n = 14 (6 weekly 90-min group sessions)	Delayed-Intervention Control Group (DI) Randomized: n = 15 Completed: n = 15	CAPS; PCL (BSI-I8; FACIT-SpEx4; MAAS; Q-LES-Q: SF; STAXI-2)	Between Groups: CAPS: MR vs DI (d = 0.33) PCL: MR vs DI (d = 0.72) Within Group: CAPS (NR) PCL (d = 0.70)
Bormann et al. (2013)	Veterans with PTSD N = 146 Mean age = 57 (3% women)	Mantram Repetition Program (MR) + Treatment-As-Usual Randomized: n = 71 Completed: n = 66 (6 weekly 90-min group sessions)	Treatment-As-Usual (TAU) Randomized: n = 75 Completed: n = 70	CAPS; PCL (BSI-18; FACIT-Sp; SF-12)	Between Groups: CAPS: MR vs TAU ( $η_{p}^{2}$ = 0.03) PCL: MR vs TAU ( $η_{p}^{2}$ = 0.03) Within Group: CAPS (NR) PCL (NR)
Kearney et al. (2013)	Veterans with PTSD N = 47 Mean age = 52 (21.3% women)	Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction + Treatment-As-Usual (MBSR) Randomized: n = 25 Completed: n = 21 (8 weekly 2.5-hr group sessions plus 7-hr group session)	Treatment-As-Usual (TAU) Randomized: n = 22 Completed: n = 21	PCL-C (BADS; FFMQ; PHQ-9; SF-8)	Between Groups: PCL-C: MBSR vs TAU (d = 0.51) Within Group: PCL-C (d = 0.63)
Kelly & Garland (2016)	Female Survivors of IPV N = 45 Mean age = 41.5 (100% women)	Trauma Informed -Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (TI-MBSR) Randomized: n = 24 Completed: n = 20 (8 weekly 2–2.5-hr group sessions)	Wait-List Control Group (WL) Randomized: n = 21 Completed: n = 19	PCL-C (BDI-II; RSQ)	Between Groups: PCL-C: TI-MBSR vs WL (d = 0.94) Within Group: PCL-C (NR)
Kim et al. (2013a)	Intensive care unit nurses N = 29 Mean age = 45.7 (96.6% women)	Mindfulness- Based Stretching and Deep Breathing Randomized: n = 11 Completed: n = 11 (16 twice-weekly 60-min group sessions)	Wait-List Control Group Randomized: n = 11 Completed: n = 10 Non-PTSD Group Randomized: n = 7 Completed: n = 7	PCL-C (Plasma ACTH; Serum Cortisol; Serum DHEAS)	Between Groups: PCL-C (NR) Within Group: PCL-C (NR)
Niles et al. (2012)	Veterans with PTSD N = 33 Age range = 52.0 (0% women)	Telehealth Mindfulness (TM) Randomized: n = 17 Completed: n = 16 (2 in-person 45-min sessions and 6 weekly 20-min telephone sessions)	Telehealth Psychoeducation (TP) Randomized: n = 16 Completed: n = 14 (2 in-person 45-minute sessions and 6 weekly 20-min telephone sessions)	CAPS; PCL-M	Between Groups: CAPS: TM vs TP ( $η_{p}^{2}$ = 0.183) PCL-M: TM vs TP ( $η_{p}^{2}$ = 0.303) Within Group: CAPS ( $η_{p}^{2}$ = 0.502) PCL-M ( $η_{p}^{2}$ = 0.556)
Polusny et al. (2015)	Veterans with PTSD N = 116 Mean age = 58.5 (16% women)	Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) Randomized: n = 58 Completed: n = 47 (8 weekly 2.5-hr group sessions and a 6.5-hr retreat)	Present-Centered Therapy (PCT) Randomized: n = 58 Completed: n = 57 (9 weekly 1.5-hr group sessions)	CAPS; PCL (CEQ; FFMQ; LEC; PHQ-9; WHOQoL-BRIEF)	Between Groups: CAPS: MBSR vs PCT (d = 0.41) PCL: MBSR vs PCT (d = 0.40) Within Group: CAPS (NR) PCL (NR)
Possemato et al. (2016)	VA primary care patients with symptoms of PTSD N = 62 Mean age = 46.4 (12.9% women)	Primary Care Brief Mindfulness Training (PCBMT) Randomized: n = 36 Completed: n = 16 (4 weekly 1.5-hr group sessions)	Primary Care Treatment As Usual (PCTAU) Randomized: n = 26 Completed: n = 24	CAPS; PCL-S (PHQ-9; MAAS; FFMQ)	Between Groups: CAPS: PCBMT vs PCTAU (d = 0.24) PCL-S: PCBMT vs PCTAU (d = 0.26) Within Group: CAPS (NR) PCL-S (NR)
YOGA (5 ARTICLES)
Carter et al. (2013)	Vietnam veterans with PTSD N = 50 Mean age = 58.5 (0% women)	Sudarshan Kriya Yoga (Y) Randomized: n = 16 Completed: n = 14 (22-hr group sessions over 5 days plus 9 2-hr follow-up sessions)	Delayed-Intervention Control Group (DI) Randomized: n = 15 Completed: n = 11	CAPS; PCL-M (AUDIT; CES-D; MINI-Plus; WHOQoL-BRIEF)	Between Groups: CAPS: Y vs DI ( $η_{p}^{2}$ = 0.17) PCL-M: Y vs DI ( $η_{p}^{2}$ = 0.41) Within Group: Y: CAPS (d = 0.90) PCL-M (NR) DI after intervention: CAPS (d = 1.20) PCL-M (NR)
Jindani et al. (2015)	Individuals with PTSD N = 80 Median age = 41 (88.8% women)	Kundalini Yoga (Y) Randomized: n = 59 Completed: n = 29 (8 weekly 90-min group sessions)	Wait-List Control Group (WL) Randomized: n = 21 Completed: n = 21	PCL-17 (RS; PANAS; FFMQ; ISI; PSS; DASS 21)	Between Groups: PCL-17: Y vs WL ( $η_{p}^{2}$ = 0.25) Within Group: PCL-17 (NR)
Mitchell et al. (2014)	Individuals with PTSD (veterans and civilians) N = 38 Mean age = 44.4 (100% women)	Kripalu Yoga (Y) Randomized: n = 20 Completed: n = 14 (12 75-min group sessions option for weekly or twice-weekly)	Assessment Control Group (ACG) Randomized: n = 18 Completed: n = 12 (12 weeks)	PCL-C (PSS-I; TLEQ; CES-D; STAI)	Between Groups: PCL-C: Y vs ACG (0.20)^* Within Group: PCL-C (NR)
Seppala et al. (2014)	OEF/OIF Veterans with PTSD N = 21 Mean age = 28.65 (0% women)	Sudarshan Kriya Yoga (Y) Randomized: n = 11 Completed: n = 10 (7 daily 3-hr group sessions)	Wait-List Control Group (WL) Randomized: n = 10 Completed: n = 9	PCL-M (MASQ)	Between Groups: PCL-M: Y vs WL (d = 1.16) Within Group: PCL-M (NR)
van der Kolk et al. (2014)	Individuals with chronic, treatment-resistant PTSD N = 64 Mean age = 42.9 (100% women)	Trauma-Informed Hatha Yoga (Y) Randomized: n = 32 Completed: n = 31 (10 weekly 60-min group sessions)	Supportive Women’s Health Education (SWHE) Randomized: n = 32 Completed: n = 29 (10 weekly 60-min group sessions)	CAPS; DTS (SCID-IV; BDI; IAS)	Between Groups: CAPS: Y vs SWHE (d = 0.41) DTS: Y vs SWHE (d = 0.34) Within Group: CAPS (d = 1.07) DTS (d = 0.52)

Note. Cohen’s d effect sizes: small = 0.1–0.3; moderate = 0.3–0.5; large = >0.5.

Partial eta squared effect sizes: small = 0.01–0.06; moderate = 0.06–0.15; large = >0.15.

= Finegold’s formula for effect size which is analogous to Cohen’s d

Key: ACG (Assessment Control Group); DI (Delayed Intervention); IPV (Interpersonal Violence); MBSR (Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction); MR (Mantram Repetition); NR (Not Reported); OEF (Operation Enduring Freedom); OIF (Operation Iraqi Freedom); PCT (Present-Centered Therapy); PCBMT (Primary Care Brief Mindfulness Training); PCTAU (Primary Care Treatment As Usual); PTSD (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder); SWHE (Supportive Women’s Health Education); TAU (Treatment-As-Usual); TM (Telehealth Mindfulness); TP (Telehealth Psychoeducation); VA (Veteran Affairs); WL (Wait-List); Y (Yoga)

Measures: AUDIT (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test); BADS (Behavioral Activation for Depression Scale); BDI (Beck Depression Inventory); BSI (Brief Symptom Inventory); CAPS (Clinician Administered PTSD Scale); CEQ (Credibility/Expectancy Questionnaire); CES-D (Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale); DASS 21 (Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale); DTS (Davidson Trauma Scale); FACIT-Sp (Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-Spiritual Well-being Scale); FACIT-SpEx4 (Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-Spirituality-Expanded); FFMQ (Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire); IAS (Inventory of Altered Self-Capacities); ISI (Insomnia Severity Index); LEC (Life Events Checklist); MAAS (Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale); MASQ (Mood and Anxiety Symptoms Questionnaire); MINI (Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview); PANAS (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule); PCL (PTSD Checklist); PCL-C (PTSD Checklist-Civilian); PCL-M (PSTD Checklist-Military); PCL-S (PTSD Checklist-Specific); PCL-17 (PTSD Checklist 17 Item Self Report); PHQ (Patient Health Questionnaire); PSS (Perceived Stress Scale); PSS-I (PTSD Symptom Scale-Interview); Q-LES-Q: SF (Quality of Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction: Short Form); RS (Resilience Scale); SCID-IV (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV); SF (Health Survey Short Form); STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory); STAXI (State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory); TLEQ (Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire); WHOQoL (World Health Organization’s Quality of Life Inventory)