Table 1.
Characteristics of the sample.
| Child poverty |
||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All (N = 1580) |
Yes (N = 434) |
No (N = 1146) |
||||||
| Mean or N | SD or % | Mean or N | SD or % | Mean or N | SD or % | χ2 or t | p | |
| Grade | ||||||||
| Fourth | 514 | 32.5 | 142 | 32.7 | 372 | 32.5 | ||
| Sixth | 511 | 32.3 | 125 | 28.8 | 386 | 33.7 | ||
| Eighth | 555 | 35.1 | 167 | 38.5 | 388 | 33.9 | 4.24 | 0.12 |
| Sex of child | ||||||||
| Male | 768 | 48.6 | 205 | 47.2 | 563 | 49.1 | ||
| Female | 812 | 51.4 | 229 | 52.8 | 583 | 50.9 | 0.45 | 0.50 |
| Responder for caregiver’s questionnaire | ||||||||
| Mother | 1419 | 89.8 | 396 | 91.2 | 1023 | 89.3 | ||
| Father | 137 | 8.7 | 33 | 7.6 | 104 | 9.1 | ||
| Others | 15 | 0.9 | 5 | 1.2 | 10 | 1.5 | ||
| Missing | 9 | 0.6 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0.1 | 10.17 | 0.12 |
| Age of parents | ||||||||
| Maternal age | 42.05 | 4.99 | 40.89 | 5.60 | 42.49 | 4.66 | 5.63 | <0.001 |
| Paternal age | 44.34 | 6.02 | 43.64 | 7.64 | 44.52 | 5.52 | 2.16 | 0.03 |
| Household income | ||||||||
| <JPY3,000,000 | 1248 | 79 | 189 | 43.5 | 1059 | 92.4 | ||
| ≧JPY3,000,000 | 202 | 12.8 | 202 | 46.5 | 0 | 0 | ||
| Missing | 130 | 8.2 | 43 | 9.9 | 87 | 7.6 | ||
| Number of lacking basic necessities | 0.32 | 1.06 | 1.15 | 1.76 | 0 | 0 | ||
| Number of lacking payment capacity | 0.19 | 0.75 | 0.70 | 1.31 | 0 | 0 | ||
| Self-esteem | 16.06 | 6.57 | 14.73 | 6.57 | 16.56 | 6.68 | 4.87 | <0.001 |
| Parental social capital | ||||||||
| Trust | ||||||||
| Strongly agree | 197 | 12.5 | 46 | 10.6 | 151 | 13.2 | ||
| Somewhat agree | 625 | 39.6 | 147 | 33.9 | 478 | 41.7 | ||
| Neither agree nor disagree | 640 | 40.5 | 189 | 43.5 | 451 | 39.3 | ||
| Somewhat disagree | 62 | 3.9 | 25 | 5.8 | 37 | 3.2 | ||
| Strongly disagree | 56 | 3.5 | 27 | 6.2 | 29 | 2.5 | 25.17 | <0.001 |
| Ties | ||||||||
| Strongly agree | 165 | 10.4 | 40 | 9.2 | 125 | 10.9 | ||
| Somewhat agree | 500 | 31.6 | 119 | 27.4 | 381 | 33.2 | ||
| Neither agree nor disagree | 750 | 47.5 | 208 | 47.9 | 542 | 47.3 | ||
| Somewhat disagree | 84 | 5.3 | 33 | 7.6 | 51 | 4.4 | ||
| Strongly disagree | 81 | 5.1 | 34 | 7.8 | 47 | 4.1 | 18.71 | 0.001 |
| Mutual aid | ||||||||
| Strongly agree | 136 | 8.6 | 31 | 7.1 | 105 | 9.2 | ||
| Somewhat agree | 527 | 33.3 | 127 | 29.3 | 400 | 34.9 | ||
| Neither agree nor disagree | 748 | 47.3 | 204 | 47.0 | 544 | 47.5 | ||
| Somewhat disagree | 90 | 5.7 | 35 | 8.1 | 55 | 4.8 | ||
| Strongly disagree | 79 | 5.0 | 37 | 8.6 | 42 | 3.7 | 25.27 | <0.001 |
| Parental mental health | ||||||||
| K6 score | 4.08 | 4.61 | 5.98 | 5.91 | 3.37 | 3.78 | -10.41 | <0.001 |
| Parental involvement | ||||||||
| Smoking in front of child | ||||||||
| Yes | 418 | 26.5 | 181 | 41.7 | 237 | 20.7 | ||
| No | 1162 | 73.5 | 253 | 58.3 | 909 | 79.3 | 71.52 | <0.001 |
| Frequency of talking about school life | ||||||||
| Almost everyday | 993 | 62.9 | 232 | 53.5 | 761 | 66.4 | ||
| 3–4 times/week | 305 | 19.3 | 105 | 24.2 | 200 | 17.4 | ||
| 1–2 times/week | 183 | 11.6 | 55 | 12.7 | 128 | 11.2 | ||
| 1–2 times/month | 65 | 4.1 | 27 | 6.2 | 38 | 2.2 | ||
| Rarely | 34 | 2.1 | 15 | 3.5 | 19 | 1.7 | 27.61 | <0.001 |
| Frequency of having breakfast (child) | ||||||||
| Everyday | 1383 | 87.5 | 330 | 76.0 | 1053 | 91.9 | ||
| Sometimes | 141 | 8.9 | 73 | 16.8 | 68 | 5.9 | ||
| Not very often/never | 56 | 3.5 | 31 | 7.1 | 25 | 2.2 | 72.70 | <0.001 |
| Frequency of eating vegetables | ||||||||
| Everyday, for both breakfast and dinner | 284 | 18.0 | 51 | 11.7 | 233 | 20.3 | ||
| Usually, for both breakfast and dinner | 301 | 19.0 | 66 | 15.2 | 235 | 20.5 | ||
| Everyday, for either breakfast or dinner | 779 | 49.3 | 232 | 53.5 | 547 | 47.7 | ||
| 2–3 meals/week | 102 | 11.5 | 72 | 16.6 | 110 | 9.6 | ||
| Less than 1 meal/week | 34 | 2.1 | 13 | 3.0 | 21 | 1.8 | 34.96 | <0.001 |
| Frequency of cooking for child | ||||||||
| Almost everyday | 1364 | 86.3 | 349 | 80.4 | 1015 | 88.6 | ||
| About 4–5 days/week | 102 | 6.5 | 42 | 9.7 | 60 | 5.2 | ||
| About 2–3 days/week | 34 | 2.2 | 15 | 3.5 | 19 | 1.7 | ||
| A few days during the month | 36 | 2.3 | 13 | 3.0 | 23 | 2.0 | ||
| Almost never | 44 | 2.8 | 15 | 3.5 | 29 | 2.5 | 19.09 | 0.001 |
| School social capital | 27.79 | 6.25 | 27.13 | 6.85 | 28.04 | 5.99 | 2.58 | 0.009 |