TABLE 1.
Effects of dietary chito-oligosaccharides (COS) supplementation on the performance of pigs.
| Concentration of COS in the diet | Animals | Results | References |
| 1000 ppm | Females pigs, 70 kg ± 0.90 | Reduced feed intake and final body weight (P < 0.001), lowered ileal digestibility of dry matter (DM), gross energy (GE; P < 0.05), and reduced coefficient of apparent total tract digestibility (CATTD) of gross energy and nitrogen (P < 0.05) | Egan et al.,2015 |
| 300 μg/kg | Similar body weight, 28 days | Lowered serum concentrations of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL) 6, and IL-8 (P < 0.05) | Huang et al.,2016 |
| 100, 500, 1000, or 2000 mg/kg | Average body weight of 7.6 kg, 28 days | Improved serum NO concentrations and iNOS activity (P < 0.05). Enhanced the expressions of iNOS mRNA in the jejunum and ileum | Li et al.,2017 |
| 100, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg /kg | Average body weight of 7.6 kg, 28 days | Improved the serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) and secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA; P < 0.05). Decreased serum concentrations of soluble CD4 and soluble CD8 (P < 0.05) | Li et al.,2013 |
| 100, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg /kg | Average body weight of 7.6 kg, 28 days | Increased serum AA, prostaglandin E2, and leukotriene B4 contents, improved the activities of serum cytosolic-phospholipase A2, 5-lipoxygenase activity and cyclooxygenase-2 activity | Li et al.,2017 |
| 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg | 4.72 ± 0.23 kg; 16 days | Improved ADG, ADFI and G: F, increased (P < 0.05) the digestibility of DM, Ca, and P, incidence of diarrhea and decreased diarrhea scores | Liu et al.,2008 |
| 40% | 4.9 ± 0.3 kg, 17 ± 3 day | Reduced the incidence of diarrhea, the growth performance of Escherichia coli-challenged pigs than that of unsupplemented pigs challenged with E. coli | Liu et al.,2010 |
| 100 mg/kg | 5.33 ± 0.369 kg, 17 days | Positive effect on the feed conversion ratio (FCR) and incidence of diarrhea | Oliveira et al.,2017 |
| 20 g/kg | 60.3 ± 2.1 kg, 14 days | No influence (P > 0.05) on nutrient digestibility or N utilization | O’Shea et al.,2011 |
| 250 mg/kg | 8.09 ± 1.87 kg, 28 days | Increased serum concentrations of IgG, IgA, IgM, IL - 6, I L -2, and IL – l β (P < 0.05), no difference in average daily gain or feed intake | Sun et al.,2009 |
| 75, 150, or 225 mg/kg | 5.68 ± 0.07 kg, 18 days | Increased the digestibility of crude protein, crude fat, ash, calcium, and phosphorus, and also villus height and villus height/crypt depth ratio (P < 0.05) | Suthongsa et al.,2017 |
| 100 mg/kg | 7.78 ± 0.09 kg, 28 days | Increased average daily body weight gain and digestibility of crude protein, ash, fat, dry matter, and gross energy (P < 0.05) | Wan et al.,2017 |
| 100 mg/kg | Multiparous sows | Enhanced the fetal survival rate and size (crown-to-rump length) of multiparous sows, increased the survival rate of piglets per fetus and the average weight of piglets | Wan et al.,2016 |
| 300 mg/kg | 5.65 ± 0.27, 21 days | Elevated (P < 0.05) the mRNA expression of IL-1b, and IL-6 in the jejunal mucosa, decreased the calprotectin levels, and TLR4 protein expression | Xiao et al.,2014 |
| 300 mg/kg | 21 days | Reduced feed conversion ratio, villus width, and crypt depth (P < 0.05), increased villus length, villus length/crypt depth, and goblet cells (P < 0.05) | Xiao et al.,2013 |
| 30 mg /kg | Pregnant sows with the same parturition history | Increased villus length and ratio of villus length to crypt depth in the ileum and jejunum (P < 0.01), stimulate plasma glutathione peroxidase activity (P < 0.01) | Xie et al.,2016c |
| 30 mg/kg | Pregnant sows with same parturition history | Enhanced daily gain and weaning weight (P < 0.05), and the concentration of amino acids in sow milk (P < 0.05). Increased the expression of PEPCK-C, PEPCK-M, and G6Pase in the liver of piglets | Xie et al.,2015 |
| 30 mg /kg | Pregnant sows with a similar parturition number | Promoted the plasma and hepatic cholesterol accumulation and up-regulated the mRNA level of negative-regulated element period 1, reduced the circadian locomotor output cycles kaput, and brain muscle Arnt-like 1 of the suckling piglets | Xie et al.,2016b |
| 30 mg /kg | Pregnant sows with the same parturition history | Increased plasma total SOD and the expression of some antioxidant genes in the placenta, reduced plasma MDA (0.05 < P < 0.10) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (P < 0.05) | Xie et al.,2016c |
| 30 mg/kg | 7.86 ± 0.22 kg; 21 days | No influence (P > 0.05) on growth performance, reduced villus height (P < 0.05) and villus height: crypt depth (P < 0.05) in the ileum | Xiong et al.,2015 |
| 100, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg | 11.56 ± 1.61 kg; 35 days | Improved average daily gain (ADG), apparent digestibility of crude protein (CP) and digestibility of dry matter (DM; P < 0.05) | Xu et al.,2014 |
| Concentration of COS in the diet | Animals | Results | References |
| 100, 500, 1,000, and 2,000 mg/kg | 11.56 ± 1.61 kg; 35 days | Enhanced average body weight gain (BWG), increased the concentration of serum GH, the villus height of jejunum and ileum, and the ratio of villus height to crypt depth in duodenum, jejunum, and ileum | Xu et al.,2013 |
| 3 mg/kg | 5.97 ± 0.46 kg; 21 days | Decreased the E. coli numbers, increased the lymphocyte count in blood. No influenced on nutrient digestibility, and blood characteristics | Yan and Kim,2011 |
| 200,400, or 600 mg/kg | 5.98 ± 0.04 kg; 21 ± 3 days | Increased ADG, ADFI and G:F (P < 0.05), reduced diamine oxidase (DAO) in the serum. Enriched the concentration of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli (P < 0.05), lowered the population of cecal Staphylococcus aureus (P < 0.05) | Yang et al.,2012 |
| 30 mg/kg | 7.82 ± 0.21 kg; 25 days | Increased serum IgG, urea nitrogen contents and serum calcium (P < 0.05). Improved the concentration of short chain fatty acid (SCFA) in caecal and colonic digesta | Yang et al.,2016 |
| 100 mg/kg | Male pigs; 15 ± 1 kg | Reduced oxygen consumption and the net absorption of dietary AA into the portal vein | Yin et al.,2010 |
| 250 mg/kg | 5.6 ± 0.51 kg; 15 day | Increased (p < 0.05) IL-1β gene expression in jejunal mucosa and lymph nodes, and serum levels of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IgA, IgG, and IgM | Yin et al.,2008 |
| 50 mg/kg | Average weight of 6 kg; 21 day | Increased the relative abundance of Succinivibrio and Anaerovibrio, decreased the ratio of Lactobacillus | Yu et al.,2017 |
| 160 mg/kg | 8.24 ± 0.88 kg; 28 days | Improved (P < 0.01) average daily gain and feed conversion ratio, increased peripheral blood lymphocyte proliferation and serum-specific ovalbumin antibody level (P < 0.01) | Zhao et al.,2017 |
| 1, 2 g/kg | 7.10 ± 0.48 kg; 42 days | Improved total tract apparent digestibility (TTAD) of dry matter (DM) and nitrogen (N; p < 0.05) | Zhou et al.,2012 |