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. 2019 May 7;10:516. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00516

TABLE 1.

Effects of dietary chito-oligosaccharides (COS) supplementation on the performance of pigs.

Concentration of COS in the diet Animals Results References
1000 ppm Females pigs, 70 kg ± 0.90 Reduced feed intake and final body weight (P < 0.001), lowered ileal digestibility of dry matter (DM), gross energy (GE; P < 0.05), and reduced coefficient of apparent total tract digestibility (CATTD) of gross energy and nitrogen (P < 0.05) Egan et al.,2015
300 μg/kg Similar body weight, 28 days Lowered serum concentrations of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL) 6, and IL-8 (P < 0.05) Huang et al.,2016
100, 500, 1000, or 2000 mg/kg Average body weight of 7.6 kg, 28 days Improved serum NO concentrations and iNOS activity (P < 0.05). Enhanced the expressions of iNOS mRNA in the jejunum and ileum Li et al.,2017
100, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg /kg Average body weight of 7.6 kg, 28 days Improved the serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) and secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA; P < 0.05). Decreased serum concentrations of soluble CD4 and soluble CD8 (P < 0.05) Li et al.,2013
100, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg /kg Average body weight of 7.6 kg, 28 days Increased serum AA, prostaglandin E2, and leukotriene B4 contents, improved the activities of serum cytosolic-phospholipase A2, 5-lipoxygenase activity and cyclooxygenase-2 activity Li et al.,2017
100, 200, and 400 mg/kg 4.72 ± 0.23 kg; 16 days Improved ADG, ADFI and G: F, increased (P < 0.05) the digestibility of DM, Ca, and P, incidence of diarrhea and decreased diarrhea scores Liu et al.,2008
40% 4.9 ± 0.3 kg, 17 ± 3 day Reduced the incidence of diarrhea, the growth performance of Escherichia coli-challenged pigs than that of unsupplemented pigs challenged with E. coli Liu et al.,2010
100 mg/kg 5.33 ± 0.369 kg, 17 days Positive effect on the feed conversion ratio (FCR) and incidence of diarrhea Oliveira et al.,2017
20 g/kg 60.3 ± 2.1 kg, 14 days No influence (P > 0.05) on nutrient digestibility or N utilization O’Shea et al.,2011
250 mg/kg 8.09 ± 1.87 kg, 28 days Increased serum concentrations of IgG, IgA, IgM, IL - 6, I L -2, and IL – l β (P < 0.05), no difference in average daily gain or feed intake Sun et al.,2009
75, 150, or 225 mg/kg 5.68 ± 0.07 kg, 18 days Increased the digestibility of crude protein, crude fat, ash, calcium, and phosphorus, and also villus height and villus height/crypt depth ratio (P < 0.05) Suthongsa et al.,2017
100 mg/kg 7.78 ± 0.09 kg, 28 days Increased average daily body weight gain and digestibility of crude protein, ash, fat, dry matter, and gross energy (P < 0.05) Wan et al.,2017
100 mg/kg Multiparous sows Enhanced the fetal survival rate and size (crown-to-rump length) of multiparous sows, increased the survival rate of piglets per fetus and the average weight of piglets Wan et al.,2016
300 mg/kg 5.65 ± 0.27, 21 days Elevated (P < 0.05) the mRNA expression of IL-1b, and IL-6 in the jejunal mucosa, decreased the calprotectin levels, and TLR4 protein expression Xiao et al.,2014
300 mg/kg 21 days Reduced feed conversion ratio, villus width, and crypt depth (P < 0.05), increased villus length, villus length/crypt depth, and goblet cells (P < 0.05) Xiao et al.,2013
30 mg /kg Pregnant sows with the same parturition history Increased villus length and ratio of villus length to crypt depth in the ileum and jejunum (P < 0.01), stimulate plasma glutathione peroxidase activity (P < 0.01) Xie et al.,2016c
30 mg/kg Pregnant sows with same parturition history Enhanced daily gain and weaning weight (P < 0.05), and the concentration of amino acids in sow milk (P < 0.05). Increased the expression of PEPCK-C, PEPCK-M, and G6Pase in the liver of piglets Xie et al.,2015
30 mg /kg Pregnant sows with a similar parturition number Promoted the plasma and hepatic cholesterol accumulation and up-regulated the mRNA level of negative-regulated element period 1, reduced the circadian locomotor output cycles kaput, and brain muscle Arnt-like 1 of the suckling piglets Xie et al.,2016b
30 mg /kg Pregnant sows with the same parturition history Increased plasma total SOD and the expression of some antioxidant genes in the placenta, reduced plasma MDA (0.05 < P < 0.10) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (P < 0.05) Xie et al.,2016c
30 mg/kg 7.86 ± 0.22 kg; 21 days No influence (P > 0.05) on growth performance, reduced villus height (P < 0.05) and villus height: crypt depth (P < 0.05) in the ileum Xiong et al.,2015
100, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg 11.56 ± 1.61 kg; 35 days Improved average daily gain (ADG), apparent digestibility of crude protein (CP) and digestibility of dry matter (DM; P < 0.05) Xu et al.,2014
Concentration of COS in the diet Animals Results References
100, 500, 1,000, and 2,000 mg/kg 11.56 ± 1.61 kg; 35 days Enhanced average body weight gain (BWG), increased the concentration of serum GH, the villus height of jejunum and ileum, and the ratio of villus height to crypt depth in duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Xu et al.,2013
3 mg/kg 5.97 ± 0.46 kg; 21 days Decreased the E. coli numbers, increased the lymphocyte count in blood. No influenced on nutrient digestibility, and blood characteristics Yan and Kim,2011
200,400, or 600 mg/kg 5.98 ± 0.04 kg; 21 ± 3 days Increased ADG, ADFI and G:F (P < 0.05), reduced diamine oxidase (DAO) in the serum. Enriched the concentration of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli (P < 0.05), lowered the population of cecal Staphylococcus aureus (P < 0.05) Yang et al.,2012
30 mg/kg 7.82 ± 0.21 kg; 25 days Increased serum IgG, urea nitrogen contents and serum calcium (P < 0.05). Improved the concentration of short chain fatty acid (SCFA) in caecal and colonic digesta Yang et al.,2016
100 mg/kg Male pigs; 15 ± 1 kg Reduced oxygen consumption and the net absorption of dietary AA into the portal vein Yin et al.,2010
250 mg/kg 5.6 ± 0.51 kg; 15 day Increased (p < 0.05) IL-1β gene expression in jejunal mucosa and lymph nodes, and serum levels of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IgA, IgG, and IgM Yin et al.,2008
50 mg/kg Average weight of 6 kg; 21 day Increased the relative abundance of Succinivibrio and Anaerovibrio, decreased the ratio of Lactobacillus Yu et al.,2017
160 mg/kg 8.24 ± 0.88 kg; 28 days Improved (P < 0.01) average daily gain and feed conversion ratio, increased peripheral blood lymphocyte proliferation and serum-specific ovalbumin antibody level (P < 0.01) Zhao et al.,2017
1, 2 g/kg 7.10 ± 0.48 kg; 42 days Improved total tract apparent digestibility (TTAD) of dry matter (DM) and nitrogen (N; p < 0.05) Zhou et al.,2012