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. 2019 Apr 2;8(4):444. doi: 10.3390/jcm8040444

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© 2019 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Immune mechanisms of pre- and probiotics. Prebiotics feed the commensal bacteria and protiotics. Probiotics modulate the humoral response (increase IgA and decrease IgE), balance cell-mediated immune response (increase Treg cells and decrease Th2 response), compete with pathogens, and modify the microenvironment. SCFA: short chain fatty acid; AMP: anti-microbial peptide; DC: Dendritic cell; IL: Interleukin; TGF: Tumor growth factor; IgE: Immunoglobulin E; IgA: Immunoglobulin A; Th1: T helper 1 cells; Th2: T helper 2 cells.