Table 4.
Association of arterial stiffness with cognition and dementia in prospective cohort studies.
| Study Name, Place and Year Published | Number and Age (Year) | Follow-up (Year) | Cognition Assessed |
Major Adjusted
Co-variates |
Main Results | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rotterdam Study Netherland 2007 |
2,767 (70.7 ± 6.0) |
Baseline (1997-99) and follow-up (2002-04) | Incident dementia, MMSE, DST, Stroop test, Word frequency test | Age, sex, education, blood pressure, heart rate, smoking, diabetes, BMI, total cholesterol, HDL-C and carotid IMT | PWV had a significant positive association with Stroop test but not other test or incident dementia. | [208] |
| BLSA US 2008 |
582 (54.3 ± 17.1) |
1.6 | Digits Forward and Backward of WAIS-revised, CVLT, BVRT, TMT A and B, Letter fluency and category fluency tests, Boston naming test, MMSE, Blessed I-M-C test | Age, sex, education, depression heart rate, BMI, smoking, alcohol, and cardiovascular comorbidities | Significant interaction of PWV and age were found for BVRT, CVLT and Blessed I-M-C. Subjects with higher PWV at baseline showed a trajectory of greater decline in performance on each cognitive test. | [209] |
| Health ABC US 2013 |
2,488 (74.2 ± 2.9) |
9 | MMSE (cognitive impairment was defined as a decline of 5 or more points of MMSE) | Age, sex, race, education, ApoE, BMI, HDL-C, diabetes, hypertension and blood pressure | Multivariable-adjusted Odds ratio of cognitive impairment in the highest compared to the lowest tertile of PWV was 1.59 (1.16-2.16) | [210] |
| KLoSH South Korea 2015 |
248 (71.7 ± 6.3) |
5 | Korean versions of the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease Clinical Assessment Battery and the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview. | Age, education, hypertension, baseline MMSE, GDS-K, and CIRS | PWV did not have a significant association with the risk of cognitive impairment | [197] |
| Japan 2015 |
526 (71.7 ± 5.6) |
3.4 | MMSE (cognitive decline was defined as decline of 2 or more points of MMSE) | Age, sex, education, blood pressure, HDL-C, and ApoE | Multivariable-adjusted Odds ratio of cognitive decline in the highest compared to the lowest tertile of PWV was 2.95 (1.29-6.74) | [211] |
| Framingham Study US 2016 |
1,101 (69 ± 6) |
10-year risks | Incident dementia and MCI | Age, sex, education, blood pressure, diabetes, HDL-C, total cholesterol, ApoE4, smoking, prevalent CVD and heart rate. | Multivariable-adjusted Hazard ratio of incident MCI in the top to quintiles compared to the lowest quintile was of PWV was 1.69 (1.04-2.73). Subgroup analyses showed that individuals without diabetes had a significant positive association with incident dementia. | [207] |
| CHS US 2018 |
356 (77.8 ± 3.8) |
Over 15-year follow-up | Incident dementia | Age, sex, race, education, BMI, blood pressure, and ApoE | Multivariable-adjusted Hazard ratio of incident dementia associated with 1 SD increase in PWV was 1.60 (1.20-2.51) | [206] |
BLSA: Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging, Health ABC: Health, Aging, and Body Composition, KLoSHA: Korean Longitudinal study of health and aging, CHS: Cardiovascular Health Study, MMSE: Mini-Mental State Examination, DST: Digit subtraction test, WAIS: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, CVLT: California Verbal Learning Test, BVRT: Benton Visual Retention Test, TMT-A: Trail-Making test A, TMT-B: Trail-Making Test B, I-M-C: Information-Memory-Concentration test, MCI: mild cognitive impairment, BMI: Body mass index, HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, IMT: Intima-media thickness, ApoE: Apolipoprotein E genotype, GDS-K: Korean version of geriatric depression scale, CIRS: Cumulative illness rating scale.