Table 7.
Pharmacological activities of different mangrove species.
| Species | Plant Part(s) | Extract | Study/Assays | Activity | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acanthus ilicifolius L. | L, R | Me | Antioxidant-DPPH (In vitro) |
IC50 (mg/mL): L = 2501.53 ± 182.62, R = 1319.66 ± 150.76 | [105] |
| L, R | Me | Antioxidant-FRAP (In vitro) |
AAE (mg/g): L = 1.10 ± 0.03, R = 1.62 ± 0.03 | ||
| L | Me | Antinociceptive- Acetic acid-induced writhing test (In vivo) | Control (10 mL/kg) number of writhings = 51.5 ± 4.1, at 250 and 500 mg/kg (extract), %inhibition = 33.0% and 51.1% respectively | [68] | |
| L | Me | Antinociceptive-Formalin test (In vivo) | At 250 and 500 mg/kg, %inhibition = 37.54 and 50.18 respectively for 5 min and 45.5% and 67.24% respectively for 30 min | ||
| L | Me | Anti-inflammatory- Carrageenan-induced paw edema (In vivo) | ED50 (mg/kg) = 146.2, 95% Cl = 69.38–286.2 both at early and late phases. After 2 h, ED50 (mg/kg) = 194, 95% Cl = 135.8–301.4. With BW755C (COX-LOX inhibitor) the paw edema decreased significantly. No significant inhibitory activity was shown with indomethacin | [66] | |
| L | Me | Anti-inflammatory- Acetic acid-induced peritoneal inflammation (In vivo) | At 200 and 400 mg/kg, %inhibition = 48 and 77, respectively | ||
| L | Me | Antioxidant-DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (g/mL): extract = 8.40 ± 0.06, Quercetin = 5.28 ± 0.08, Vitamin C = 6.62 ± 0.05 | ||
| L | Me | Antioxidant- ABTS (In vitro) | IC50 (g/mL): extract = 10.34 ± 0.02, Quercetin = 3.60 ± 0.03, Vitamin C = 4.86 ± 0.03 | ||
| L | Me | Antioxidant- SO (In vitro) | IC50 (g/mL): extract = 78.12 ± 2.51, Quercetin = 30.19 ± 1.32, Vitamin C = 52.18 ± 3.14 | ||
| L | Me | Antioxidant- HO (In vitro) | IC50 (g/mL): extract = 24.60 ± 1.10, Quercetin = 14.32 ± 0.52, Vitamin C = 21.08 ± 0.34 | ||
| L | A | Antimicrobial (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against BS = 20, SA = 18, PA = 18, CA = 22 | [67] | |
| L | Bu | Zone of inhibition (mm) against BS = 16, SA = 8, PA = 10, CA = 15 | |||
| L | C | Zone of inhibition (mm) against BS = 22, SA = 21, PA = 20, CA = 26 | |||
| L | A | Antimicrobial-Disc diffusion assay (In vitro) | Active against EC, AGT, STM, SA, AF, and TR. Zone of inhibition (mm) = 7.5 ± 0.4, 8 ± 0.5, 7 ± 0.1, 8.2 ± 0.3, 8.0 ± 0.7 and 7.9 ± 0.3, respectively. Me and EA extracts are inactive against TR | [106] | |
| Aegialitis rotundifolia Roxb. | L | Aq | Anti-inflammatory- Cotton pellet-induced granuloma (In vitro) | At 400 mg/kg, %inhibition = 29.1, while %inhibition of standard drug = 63.22% | [73] |
| L | Aq | Anti-inflammatory- Carrageenan induced hind paw edema (In vitro) | At 400 mg/kg, %inhibition = 26.75%, while %inhibition of indomethacin = 40.13% | ||
| L | Aq | Analgesic- Acetic acid induced writhing test (In vitro) | At 200 and 400 mg/kg, %inhibition = 47.86% and 57.1% respectively | ||
| L | Aq | Antipyretic (In vitro) | At 400 mg/kg, a moderate antipyretic activity is reported by decreasing the temperature at 36.61 °C | ||
| L | Aq | Cytotoxicity using micro culture tetrazolium assay (MTT assay) (In vitro) | Active; IC50 at 200 µg/mL = 97.77 | [107] | |
| L | Me | Thrombolytic activity (In vitro) | At dosage 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 mg/mL, %of clot lysis = 9.57 ± 1.06%, 13.35 ± 1.67%, 19.35 ± 1.84%, 28.23 ± 1.97%, and 32.76 ± 1.22%, respectively | [45] | |
| L | Me | Membrane stabilizing activity―Hypotonic solution-induced hemolysis (In vitro) | At dosage 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 mg/mL, %inhibition of hemolysis = 22.80 ± 0.49%, 30.80 ± 0.6%, 35.30 ± 0.74%, 40.80 ± 0.89%, and 45.80 ± 0.77%, respectively | ||
| L | Me | Antibacterial―Disc diffusion (In vitro) | Active against 100 µL of ST and EC. Inactive against SA and PA | ||
| Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco | St | H | Toxicity (In vivo) | Non-toxic at 1 g/kg | [74] |
| St | EA | LD50(mg/kg) = 850 | |||
| St | Me | Toxic above 200 mg/kg | |||
| St | EA | Antinociceptive- Acetic acid-induced writhings in mice (In vivo) | At 10 and 50 mg/kg, %inhibition = 29 ± 2.5% and 53 ± 3.0%, respectively, IC50 (mg/kg) at 50 mg/kg = 52 ± 4.2 | ||
| St | H | At 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg, %inhibition = 12 ± 0.7%, 28 ± 2.5%, and 37 ± 3.5%, respectively | |||
| St | Me | At 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg, %inhibition = 33.4 ± 3.3%, 55.6 ± 6.2%, and 82.4 ± 7.3%, respectively. Me extract at 5 mg/kg is more potent with IC50 value of 4.2 ± 0.99 | |||
| AP | H | Anti-inflammatory- Carrageenan induced paw edema in rats (In vivo) | At 10, 25, and 50 mg/kg, % inhibition = 15.8 ± 2.0%, 39.2 ± 3.9%, and 65.0 ± 4.0%, respectively | [75] | |
| AP | EA | At 1, 5, and 10 mg/kg, % inhibition = 28.4 ± 4.7%, 40.6 ± 2.1%, and 51.4 ± 2.7%, respectively | |||
| AP | Me | At 100 mg/kg, % inhibition = 10.8 ± 3.4% | |||
| L | CE | Antibacterial using REMA assay (In vitro) | Active against BS (gram-positive) and EC (gram-negative) at 5 mg/mL | [108] | |
| L, Sb, R | Me | Antioxidant-FRAP (In vitro) | AAE (mg/g) for the 3 methanolic extracts of each plant parts = 5.31 ± 0.11, 8.18 ± 0.14, and 5.03 ± 0.73, respectively | [105] | |
| L, Sb, R | Me | Antioxidant-DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (mg/mL) for the 3 methanolic extracts of each plant parts = 129.95 ± 3.29, 96.74 ± 2.52, and 233.53 ± 56.25, respectively | ||
| L | EA | Antimicrobial-Disc diffusion assay (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against EC, AGT, STM, and SA = 6.9 ± 0.4, 8.25 ± 0.3, 6.5 ± 0.5, and 8.0 ± 0.4, respectively, Inactive against AF and TR | [106] | |
| Acrostichum aureum L. | L | Me | Antibacterial-Disc diffusion (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against EC = 10 ± 0.12, SM = 7.6 ± 0.58 | [76] |
| L | Ac | Zone of inhibition (mm) against PA, SA, EC and SM = 12.3 ± 0.23, 9.7 ± 0.48, 10.6 ± 0.14, and 7 ± 0.32, respectively | |||
| L | PE | No activity observed | |||
| L | W | No activity observed | |||
| Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh | L | A | Antimicrobial- Agar well diffusion (In vitro) | Active against BC, EF, SA, SM, and AT | [7] |
| L | E | Anti-inflammatory- Rat model of rheumatoid arthritis (In vivo) | Inflammatory markers were observed to be reduced and joint lesions were improved | [109,110] | |
| L | E | Antiviral (In vitro) | Active against HIV, SFV, EMVC, and HBV | [98] | |
| L | E | Antimutagenic- MTT assay (In vitro) | Strong effect with inhibition rates of 68% and 71% with and without metabolic activation S9 | [111] | |
| L | E | Anticancer- MTT assay (In vitro) | Significant cytotoxic effect on HL-60 cells and induced apoptosis in HL-60 cell line | ||
| NI | Me | Antioxidant- ABTS (In vitro) | Strong activity | [112] | |
| L | NI | Antimicrobial (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against EC, SA, BS, CA, and AN = 12, 6, 7, 9, and 10, respectively for 30 µl of extract | [113] | |
| L | Ac | Antimicrobial- Disc diffusion assay (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against AGT, STM, SA, and TR are 6.8 ± 0.9, 7.5 ± 0.5, 9.1 ± 0.3, and 6.5 ± 0.35, respectively. Inactive against EC and TR | [106] | |
| L | CE | Antimicrobial- Disc diffusion assay (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against SA, KP, PA, BS, EC, ENA, PS, SP, and CS = 18, 24, 26, 16, 27, 8, 12, 5, and 1, respectively | [114] | |
| L | CE | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | %radical scavenging = 88.93% | ||
| Avicennia germinans (L.) L. | L | Me | Antibacterial- Disc diffusion assay (In vitro) | At 100 mg, zone of inhibition (mm) against EC, KS, PS, and SA = 16, 22, 12, and 18 | [77] |
| Avicennia officinalis L | L | E | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (control) = 65.12 ± 54, IC50 (extract) at 0.1 mg/mL = 40.77 ± 3.43 | [80] |
| L | E | Antioxidant- HO (In vitro) | IC50 (control) = 64.35 ± 1.34, IC50 (extract) = 38.23 ± 3.84 | ||
| L | E | Antioxidant- NO (In vitro) | At 0.1 mg/mL, IC50: control = 62.97 ± 8.64, extract = 39.87 ± 4.78 | ||
| L | E | Antioxidant- ABTS (In vitro) |
At 0.1 mg/mL, IC50: control = 61.84 ± 1.33, extract = 38.78 ± 9.62 | ||
| L | EA | Antimicrobial- Disc diffusion assay (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against EC, STM, and SA = 7.8 ± 0.7, 7 ± 0.1, and 7.7 ± 0.5, respectively, inactive against AF and TR | [106] | |
| R | A, E, Me | Antimicrobial- Agar well diffusion (In vitro) | For the three extracts activity observed with EC, SA, ENA, KP, PA, BS, LD, and SP | [112] | |
| NI | E | Antiulcer- Indomethacine-induced gastric ulcer (In vitro) | Gastric ulcers observed to decrease when glutathione is reduced in the gastric mucosa | [115] | |
| L | Me | Anti-inflammatory- Carrageenan induced paw edema (In vivo) | Inhibition of prostaglandin effect more potent in chronic model than in acute model | [79] | |
| L | Me | Diuretic- Lipschitz dirutic model (In vivo) | At dosage 200 and 400 mg/kg, volume of urine = 3.06 ± 0.18 and 3.89 ± 0.13 mL, respectively | [116] | |
| L | Me | Neuropharmacological- Pentobarbital induced hypnosis test (In vivo) | At dosage 250 and 500 mg/kg, total sleeping time = 6.74 ± 2.83 and 82.07 ± 3.57 min, respectively while with control (0.1% Tween 80), time = 32.06 ± 1.20 min | ||
| L | Me | Neuropharmacological- Open field test (In vivo) | At dosage 250 mg/kg, number of movements before and after drug administration after 90 min = 110.50 ± 2.12 and 41.85 ± 3.35, respectively | ||
| At dosage 500 mg/kg, number of movements before and after drug administration after 90 min = 107.99 ± 2.70 and 30.06 ± 2.64, respectively | |||||
| L | Me | Neuropharmacological- Hole cross test (In vivo) | At dosage 250 mg/kg, number of holes crossed before and after drug administration after 90 min = 7.57 ± 0.18 and 5.30 ± 0.69, respectively | ||
| At dosage 500 mg/kg, number of movements before and after drug administration after 90 min = 6.61 ± 0.72 and 4.90 ± 0.67, respectively | |||||
| L | PE | Anti-HIV- Reverse transcriptase (RT) inhibition assay (In vitro) | %inhibition: control = 71.04 ± 1.94, extract = 74.79 ± 3.47 | [117] | |
| L | E | %inhibition: control (AZT) = 71.04 ± 1.94, extract = 82.00 ± 0.26 | |||
| Fr | E | Antioxidant- ABTS (In vitro) | Activity highest with ABTS compared to DPPH and FRAP | [112] | |
| L | E | Toxicity (In vivo) | No significant change observed in the majority of the mice. Mortality rate was zero | [115] | |
| L | E | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | At dosage 10 and 100 µg/mL, %inhibition = 16.34% and 63.64%, respectively | [118] | |
| L | E | Cytotoxic (In vitro) | LC50 (µg/mL) = 131.2 | ||
| L | E | Antibacterial- Disc diffusion (In vitro) | Active against EC and ST, MIC (µg/mL) against EC = 62.5, ST = 125 | ||
| Bruguiera cylindrica (L.) Blume | St | Bu, C, E, H, Aq | Antioxidant- Oxygen free radical generation (In vitro) | %inhibition for all extracts ranged from 18–77 for superoxide anions (O2-), 29–43 for hydroxyl radical (OH•) and 20–39 for microsomallipid peroxidation | [119] |
| L, St | Me | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL) for L =1 75, St = 162.5 | [120] | |
| Brugueira gymnorhiza (L.) Lam | L | Me | Antinociceptive- Acetic acid-induced writhing in mice (In vivo) | At dosage 250 and 500 mg/kg, % writhing inhibition = 46% and 59%, respectively. Control (25 mg/kg) = 63% | [81] |
| L | Me | Anti-diarrheal (In vivo) | Latent period (h) for control (loperamide) and at dosage 500 mg = 1.71 ± 0.145 and 1.67 ± 0.163, respectively | ||
| L | CE | Anti-inflammatory- COX inhibition assay (In vitro) | %inhibition at 10 and 100 µg/mL = 9.7 ± 7.2 and 65.1 ± 5.8, respectively | [121] | |
| L | CE | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | %inhibition at 2 and 1 mg/mL = 68% and 59%, respectively | ||
| B | C, E, Me | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50: C = 0.27 ± 0.017, E = 0.029 ± 0.004, Me = 0.038 ± 0.003 | [83] | |
| L | Me | Antimicrobial (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against BC, SA, EC, and PA are 12.67, 14.34, 8.87, and 7.85, respectively | ||
| B | Me | Toxicity (In vivo) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against BC, SA, EC, and PA are 15.86, 17.85, 9.25, and 8.38, respectively | ||
| R | E | Non-toxic, no significant change in behavior or neurological response up to 400 mg/kg body weight | [82] | ||
| R | E | Antihyperglycemic- STZ induced diabetic rats (In vivo) | Serum glucose levels of control and extract (400 mg/kg) at day 0 = 224.70 ± 15.52 and 237.0 ± 15.0 mg/mL, respectively | ||
| Serum glucose levels of control and extract (400 mg/kg) at day 7 = 214.5 ± 2.60 and 188.10 ± 3.14 mg/mL, respectively | |||||
| Serum glucose levels of control and extract (400 mg/kg) at day 28 = 201 ± 16.32 and 89.04 ± 10.23 mg/mL, respectively. A significant decrease is observed in the blood glucose level compared to diabetic control rats | |||||
| L | Me | Antimicrobial (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against EC= 22 | [62] | |
| B | H | Zone of inhibition (mm) against KP, ST, SA and SF are 23, 22, 19 and 22 respectively | |||
| L | Me | Antioxidant (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL) for FRAP, DPPH, NO, SO, HO and ABTS radical scavenging = 17.93 ± 0.161, 0.355 ± 0.005, 0.305 ± 0.004, 0.356 ± 0.007, 0.311 ± 0.004 and 0.056 ± 0.0003 respectively | [64] | |
| L | Me | Hepatoprotective- GaIN induced hepatic toxicity in rats (In vivo) | With sample GaIN + extract (125 mg/kg), ALT, AST, AKP, and total protein were exhibited to be 76.6 ± 2.75, 79.3 ± 2.49, 121 ± 3.19, and 4.46 ± 0.12. With sample GaIN + extract (250 mg/kg), ALT, AST, AKP, and total protein were exhibited to be 68.8 ± 2.27, 69.1 ± 1.66, 108.8 ± 3.43, and 5.01 ± 0.11 | ||
| L, Sb, R | Me | Antioxidant- FRAP (In vitro) | AAE (mg/g) for the 3 methanolic extracts of each plant parts = 1.25 ± 0.03, 2.85 ± 0.09, and 1.55 ± 0.16, respectively | [105,122] | |
| L, Sb, R | Me | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (mg/g) for the 3 methanolic extracts of each plant parts = 2052.20 ± 172.01, 254.69 ± 21.26, and 1532.71 ± 46.32, respectively | ||
| NI | Me | Cytotoxicity (In vivo) | IC50 ˃2.5 mg/mL | ||
| Bruguiera parviflora (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. ex Griff | L | EA | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | EC50 (µg/mL) = 105.00 | [123] |
| L | EA | Antioxidant- Lipid peroxidation inhibition (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL) = 42.60 | ||
| L | EA | Antioxidant- Quinone reductase induction activity (In vitro) | CD (µg/mL) ˃ 10, IC50 (µg/mL) ˃ 20 | ||
| Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. | L | EA | Antibacterial- Agar diffusion (In vitro) | Inhibition against SA and PS | [124] |
| Ceriops decandra (Griff.) W. Theob. | L, Sb, R | Me | Antioxidant- FRAP (In vitro) | AAE (mg/g) for the 3 methanolic extracts of each plant parts = 0.90 ± 0.66, 13.04 ± 0.75 and 9.81 ± 0.87 respectively | [105] |
| L, Sb, R | Me | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (mg/g) for the 3 methanolic extracts of each plant parts = 5666.86 ± 324.46, 65.55 ± 1.35, and 93.65 ± 3.52, respectively | ||
| B | E | Anti-inflammatory- Carrageenan-induced paw edema test (In vivo) | %inhibition of extract (400 mg/kg)= 67.72 while that of standard drug, indomethacin is 69.29% | [125] | |
| B | E | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL) = 12.90 | ||
| L | EA | Antimicrobial- Disc diffusion assay (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against EC, AGT, STM, and SA are 8.3 ± 0.5, 9.0 ± 0.8, 7.8 ± 0.2, and 8.5 ± 0.45, respectively, Inactive against AF and TR | [106] | |
| Ceriops roxburghiana Arn. | L | NI | Anti-HIV- MTT assay (In vitro) | CC50 (µg/mL) = 216.54 ± 14.21, EC50 (µg/mL) = 13.38 ± 3.15, SI = 16.18 | [87] |
| Excoecariaa gallocha L. | L | Me | Antioxidant (In vitro) | IC50(µg/µl): DPPH = 67.50, NO inhibition = 4.8, lipid peroxidation inhibition = 100, metal chelating effect(µg) = 2.47 | [50] |
| La, L, S | E | Anti-inflammatory- Carrageenan-induced paw edema test (In vivo) | %inhibition at 500mg/kg for all 3 extracts are 63.15%, 62.15%, and 69.29%, respectively | ||
| S | NI | Anti-inflammatory- Pellet-induced granuloma test (In vivo) | At dosage 500 mg/kg, activity was highest with a %reduction of 57.03%. | ||
| B | E | Analgesic- Acetic acid-induced writhing test in mice (In vivo) | At dosage 500 mg/kg, activity was highest with a %reduction of 53.87% | ||
| St | E | Anticancer- MTS assay (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mL) = 4 and 7, strong activity against pancreatic cancer cell lines Capan-1 and Miapaca-2 | ||
| L | Me | Antifilarial (In vitro) | Significant activity against metazoan filarial parasite Setariadigitata. After 24h treatment with extracts at a concentration of 10, 50, and 100 µg/mL, developmental stages of parasite were found dead with 30%, 75%, 100%, respectively | ||
| L | EA | Antimicrobial- Disc diffusion assay (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against EC, AGT, STM, and SA = 10.3 ± 2.7, 6.2 ± 0.8, 8.3 ± 1.2, and 8.5 ± 0.7, respectively. Inactive against AF and TR | [106] | |
| Heritiera fomes Buch.-Ham | B | Me | Antihyperglycemic- Oral glucose tolerance test in glucose-induced Swiss albino mice (In vivo) | After 60 min of glucose loading, serum glucose level with standard drug (glibenclamide- 10 mg/kg) and extract (250 mg/kg) were 43.5 and 49.2, respectively. After 120min of glucose loading, serum glucose level with standard drug, extracts at 250 and 500 mg/kg were 30.1, 35.6, and 44.7 respectively | [91] |
| B | Me | Antinociceptive- Acetic acid-induced writhing in mice (In vivo) | At dosage 100, 250, and 500 mg/kg, %inhibition = 8.5, 26.4, and 43.4, respectively | ||
| L | E | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mL) = 26.30 | [89] | |
| L | E | Antinociceptive- Acetic acid-induced writhing test (In vivo) | At dosage 250 and 500 mg/kg, % writhing inhibition = 34.83 and 59.20, respectively | ||
| L | E | Antimicrobial- Disc diffusion assay (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition(mm) against EC, ST, SP, SD, and SA = 3.92, 7.63, 5.21, 7.54, and 6.41 respectively | ||
| B | NI | Antidiabetic (In vitro) | After 60 min of glucose loading at dosage 250 mg/kg, serum glucose level was 49.2. After 120 min, serum glucose level of extracts (250 and 500 mg/kg) and standard drug (glibenclamide) were reduced by 35.6, 44.7, and 30.1, respectively | [51] | |
| L | NI | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL)= 26.30 | ||
| B | NI | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mL) = 22, EC50(µg/mL) = 19.4 | ||
| B | NI | Antinociceptive- Acetic acid-induced writhing in mice (In vivo) | At dosage 100, 250, and 500 mg/kg, %writhing inhibitions = 8.5%, 26.4%, and 43.3%, respectively | ||
| L | NI | At dosage 250 and 500 mg/kg, %writhing inhibitions = 34.83% and 59.20%, respectively | |||
| L | C | Toxicity (In vitro) | LC50(mg/mL) = 234.77 ± 0.144 | [69] | |
| B | Me | LC50(mg/mL) = 47.081 ± 0.056 | |||
| L | NI | Antioxidant-DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL) = 13 | [109] | |
| Heritiera littoralis Aiton | L, R | NI | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50(mg/mL): L = 0.028, R = 0.023 | [126] |
| L, R | NI | Antioxidant- HO (In vitro) | IC50(mg/mL): L = 0.600, R = 0.536 | ||
| L, R | NI | Antioxidant- SO (In vitro) | IC50(mg/mL): L = 0.606, R = 0.802 | ||
| Kandelia candel (L.) Druce | Hy | EA, PE, Aq | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mL): EA = 124.19 ± 3.02, PE = 153.48 ± 3.22, W = 132.04 ± 2.16 | [93] |
| Hy | EA, PE, Aq | Antioxidant- FRAP (In vitro) | AAE(mmol/g): EA = 4.39 ± 3.17, PE = 2.99 ± 0.27, W = 3.69 ± 0.04 | ||
| Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. | L | Aq | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mL) = 38.89 | [127] |
| L | Aq | Antioxidant- ABTS (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mL) = 44.38 | ||
| L | Aq | Cytotoxicity against Hep G2 cancer cell line using MTT assay (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mL) = 26.05; exhibited potent cytotoxicity activity on Hep G2 cell lines at different concentrations | ||
| L | Aq | Anticoagulant- APTT and PT assays (In vitro) | Clotting time ratio at concentration 100, 500, and 1000 µg/mL for APTT assay are 1.2, 1.4, and 1.6, respectively. Clotting time ratio at concentration 100, 500, and 1000 µg/mL for PT assay are 1.25, 1.31, and 1.34, respectively. Prolongation of APTT is slightly higher than that of the PT assay | ||
| Nypa fruticans Wurmb | NI | EA | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50(mg/mL) = 2.770 ± 0.012 | [96] |
| NI | Aq | Antidiabetic- Intraperitoneal glusoce tolerance test (In vivo) | Blood glucose lowering effect = 56.6%, serum insulin level = 79.8% | ||
| L | Me | Antimicrobial- Disc diffusion assay (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against EC, AGT, STM, and SA = 6.5 ± 0.4, 7.3 ± 0.5, 6.25 ± 0.3, and 6.8 ± 0.3, respectively. Inactive against AF and TR | [106] | |
| Pelliciera rhizophorae Planch. & Triana | L | NI | Antiparasitic (In vitro) | At 10 µg/mL, IC50 (µM) for LD, PF, and TC = 12.6 ± 0.2, 9.7 ± 0.3, and 13.0 ± 0.4, respectively. Inactive against VC | [44] |
| L | NI | Antidiabetic- α-glucosidase inhibition (In vitro) | More potent against - α-glucosidase than acarbose (positive control) with IC50(µM) = 217.7 | ||
| Rhizophora conjugata L. | NI | CE | Antimicrobial- Agar well diffusion (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against AS, AF, CA, STM, STS, SA, and LA = 7, 8, 11, 15, 19, 11, and 22, respectively. Activity against LA was highest | [128] |
| Rhizophora mangle L. | B | Aq | Anti ulcer- Indomethacine-induced gastric ulcer (In vivo) | At dosage 50, 125, 250, 500, and 750 mg/kg, the lesion indices = 5.2 ± 0.84, 4.5 ± 0.58, 3.25 ± 1.71, 1.6 ± 1.95, and 4.6 ± 0.55, respectively. Lesion index (control-distilled water) = 4.8 ± 0.45. | [129] |
| B | Aq | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | Significant decrease at 250 and 500 mg/kg compared to the control in gastric volume | [130] | |
| L | NI | Antioxidant- SO (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mL) of extract and polyphenolic fraction = 6.7 and 7.6, respectively | ||
| IC50(µg/mL) of extract and polyphenolic fraction = 31.9 and 21.6, respectively. Activity increased as tannins concentration increased | |||||
| L | NI | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL) = 89.83 ± 4.91 | [131] | |
| Antioxidant- FRAP (In vitro) | AAE (mmol/g) = 12.98 ± 1.20 | ||||
| Rhizophora apiculata Blume | R | NI | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL) = 17 | [109] |
| St | Bu, E, EE, Aq | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL): Bu = 9.68 ± 1.86, E = 19.31 ± 1.56, EE = 13.56 ± 1.79, W = 23.72 ± 1.94, control (BHT) = 52.20 ± 1.57 | [132] | |
| St | Bu, E, EE, Aq | Antioxidant- ABTS (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL): Bu = 1.26 ± 0.05, E = 3.01 ± 0.75, EE = 1.71 ± 0.39, W = 4.32 ± 0.96, control (BHT) = 9.63 ± 0.15 | ||
| St | Bu, E, EE, Aq | Antioxidant- HO (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL): Bu = 9.07 ± 0.99, E = 17.93 ± 1.51, EE = 13.57 ± 1.59, W = 33.59 ± 1.66, control (BHT) = 45.58 ± 2.14 | ||
| B | CE | Antimicrobial- Disc diffusion (In vitro) | Activity tested with MT. Complete inhibition with PM, AC, SE, YE, SA, PA, and BC. Partial inhibition with EC, BS, CA, and CN. No fungal activity reported | [133] | |
| B | Me | Activity tested with CT. Complete inhibition with SS, SA, PA, and SC. Partial inhibition with PM, SM, SP, BL, SE, BC, ETA, CA, and CN. No fungal activity reported | |||
| Activity tested with HT. Complete inhibition with PM, AC, SS, AA, BL, SE, ST, SA, and CA. Partial inhibition with PA, BC, ETA, RR, and CN. No fungal activity reported | |||||
| MIC (mg/mL): 1.56 against AC, 3.12 against BC, 6.25 against PA, 6.25 against SA, 3.13 against SS | |||||
| NI | NI | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | Most potent radical scavengers: catechol, methoxycatechol, syringol. Their respective EC50 (mg/mL): 0.1239 ± 0.0004, 0.2001 ± 0.0005, 0.2218 ± 0.0009. EC50 (mg/mL) Ascorbic acid (control) = 0.2562 ± 0.0023 | [134] | |
| Antioxidant- FRAP (In vitro) | AEAC (mgAA/g): syringol = 635 ± 35, catechol = 2283 ± 168, methoxycatehol =1560 ± 155 | ||||
| Antioxidant- Phosphomolybdenum (In vitro) | AEAC (mgAA/g): syringol = 1556 ± 86, catechol = 1861 ± 95, methoxycatehol = 2396 ± 194 | ||||
| Antioxidant- ABTS (In vitro) | TEAC (mgTR/g): syringol = 956 ± 40, catechol = 1022 ± 53, methoxycatechol = 1039 ± 51 | ||||
| L | NI | Anti-HIV- MTT assay (In vitro) | CC50 (µg/mL) = 998.21 ± 81.57, EC50 (µg/mL) = 108.55 ± 16.24, SI = 9.19 | [87] | |
| B | NI | Antioxidant- FRAP (In vitro) | Reducing power increased as concentration of mangrove tannins increased from 20 to 60 µg/mL | [135,136] | |
| Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | Scavenging activity increased as concentration of tannins increased. Maximum scavenging activity (>90%) exhibited at 30 µg/mL | ||||
| NI | NI | Antimicrobial- Disc diffusion (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against BC = 14, SS = 9. For bacteria, AC, KP, BS, SA, BL, SE, BC, SM, PA, MIC (mg/mL) ranged from 3.13 to 386.25 | ||
| Rhizophora mucronata Lam. | L, Sb, R | Me | Antioxidant- FRAP (In vitro) | AAE (mg/g) for the 3 methanolic extracts of each plant parts =2.89 ± 0.23, 3.62 ± 0.16, and 1.40 ± 0.00, respectively | [105] |
| Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (mg/g) for the 3 methanolic extracts of each plant parts = 365.37 ± 23.95, 193.82 ± 11.14, and 1377.45 ± 50.62, respectively | ||||
| L | C | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50(mg/mL) = 1.38 ± 0.03 | [137] | |
| Antioxidant- ABTS (In vitro) | IC50(mg/mL) = 1.25 ± 0.01 | ||||
| Anti-inflammatory- COX-1 inhibition (In vitro) | IC50(mg/mL) = 1.42 ± 0.01 | ||||
| Anti-inflammatory- COX-2 inhibition (In vitro) | IC50(mg/mL) = 1.38 ± 0.00 | ||||
| Anti-inflammatory- 5-LOX inhibition (In vitro) | IC50(mg/mL) = 1.16 ± 0.02, least active with COX-1 | ||||
| L | EA | Antibacterial- Agar well diffusion (In vitro) | With 50µl of extract, zone of inhibition(mm) against EC, SA, KP, PV, PA, PSF, ST, and BS = 15, 18, 9, 11, 13, 9, 13, and 6, respectively | [138] | |
| MIC for EC, SA, KP, PV, PA, PSF, ST, and BS = 8, 9, 8, 15, 8, 13, 11, and 13, respectively | |||||
| R | H | Antimicrobial- Disc diffusion (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against BS, SA, PA, PV, CA, AFM, and AN = 20, 16, 19, 17, 16, 17, and 18, respectively | [99] | |
| R | Me | Zone of inhibition (mm) against BS, SA, PA, PV, CA, AFM, and AN = 16, 14, 16, 16, 14, 12, and 14, respectively | |||
| L | Me | Antidiabetic- STZ induced diabetic rats (In vivo) | Week 3: FBG(mg/100 mL blood) level at 50 and 100 mg/kg = 90.8 ± 6.03 and 99.3 ± 4.15, respectively Week 10: FBG (mg/100 mL blood) level at 50 and 100 mg/kg = 151 ± 3.26 and 136 ± 5.11, respectively |
[64] | |
| L | Me | Antioxidant – DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mg) = 5.25 ± 0.039 | ||
| L | Me | Antibacterial-Disc diffusion (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against BS, SA, STF, STP, EC, and PA = 9.97 ± 0.17, 19.56 ± 0.19, 15.74 ± 0.06, 11.31 ± 0.25, 5.63 ± 0.06, and 16.57 ± 0.22, respectively | [139] | |
| Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | %radical scavenging at 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 µg/mL = 15.1 ± 0.2, 19.82 ± 0.61, 25.98 ± 0.46, 36.98 ± 0.04, and 42.98 ± 0.28, respectively | ||||
| Antioxidant- HO (In vitro) | %radical scavenging at 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 µg/mL = 19.08 ± 0.14, 22.62 ± 0.35, 25.43 ± 0.18, 28.36 ± 0.22, and 32.77 ± 0.44, respectively | ||||
| L | C | Analgesic (In vivo) | Basal reaction time (s) after 15 min of administration = 7.40 ± 0.30, after 30 min = 11.34 ± 0.05, after 45 min = 13.13 ± 0.03, after 90 min = 9.01 ± 0.28 | [140] | |
| B, F, Fr, L, R | Me | Antibacterial- Disc diffusion (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against SA for the respective plant parts extracts = 8.8, 7.5, 7.1, 6.1, and 7.6 | [60] | |
| Zone of inhibition (mm) against EC for the respective plant parts extracts = 6.4, NR, 8.6, 6.2, and 7.1. Highest activity with bark extract for both bacteria | |||||
| L | NI | Anti HIV- MTT assay (In vitro)Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | CC50 (µg/mL) = 798.39 ± 72.02, EC50 (µg/mL) = 492.29 ± 48.99, SI = 1.62 | [87] | |
| L | Me | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL) = 47.39 ± 0.43 | [100] | |
| Antioxidant- HO (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mL) = 401.45 ± 18.52 | ||||
| Antioxidant- NO (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mL) = 80.23 ± 0.70 | ||||
| Antioxidant- Hydrogen peroxide (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL) = 316.47 ± 3.56 | ||||
| Anti-cholinesterase (In vitro) | %inhibition against AChE = 92.73 ± 0.54, BuChE = 98.98 ± 0.17, IC50(µg/mL): AChE = 59.31 ± 0.35, BuChE = 51.72 ± 0.35 | ||||
| L | Me | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mg) = 5.25 ± 0.039 | [64] | |
| Antioxidant- NO (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mg) = 3.44 ± 0.038 | ||||
| Antioxidant- SO (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mg) = 6.04 ± 0.012 | ||||
| Antioxidant- HO (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mg) = 5.01 ± 0.072 | ||||
| Antioxidant- ABTS (In vitro) | IC50(µg/mg) = 1.42 ± 0.009 | ||||
| St | E | Antimicrobial (In vitro) | Zone of inhibition (mm) against EC, SA, ST, STP, and PA = 16, 15, 20, 12, and 15, respectively. No inhibition against KP, PV, and CA | [141] | |
| MIC (mg/mL): EC = 17, SA = 16, ST = 19, CA = 15 at 10 mg/mL of extract | |||||
| L | H, EA, Me | Anti-cholinesterase (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL): H = NR, EA = NR, Me = 222.48, Physostigmine (control) = 0.06 | [142] | |
| Fr | IC50 (µg/mL): H = 3.68x10-6, EA = 322.27, Me = 1.01, Physostigmine (control) = 0.06 | ||||
| AP | EA | Antimicrobial- Agar disc diffusion (In vitro) | Overall activity (%) against SA, SM, KP, SF, ML, VM = 66.6 | [143] | |
| AP | Me | Overall activity (%) against SA, SM, KP, SF, ML, VM = 100.0 | |||
| AP | C | Overall activity (%) against SA, SM, KP, SF, ML, VM = 14.28 | |||
| Fr | NI | Antidiabetic- Alloxan- induced diabetic rats (In vivo) | Dosage 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 mg/day/head for 18 days were administered into diabetic rats Positive control (glibenclamide: 0.09 mg/day/200 g body weight) Blood glucose level of both groups (control and experimental rat group) decreased |
[144] | |
| L | NI | Antidiabetic- Alloxan- induced diabetic rats (In vivo) | Dosage 60 mg/kg was administered to rats for 30 days. A decrease in blood glucose level was observed | [145] | |
| L | E | Hypoglycemic effect- Streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (In vivo) | Dosage 100 and 200 mg/kg were administered for 6h. Positive control (glibenclamide) = 0.5 mg/kg. Higher percentage decrease observed with control (27.2%) compared to 100 mg/kg extract (19.7%), 200 mg/kg extract (21.0%) |
[146] | |
| Rhizophora racemosa G. Mey | L | Me | Lethal dose evaluation- Karber’s method (In vitro) | LD50= 1583.33 mg/kg, the lethal dose is safe to use as a traditional medicine | [102] |
| Rhizophora stylosa Griff. | L | H, EA, Me | Anti-cholinesterase (In vitro) | IC50 (µg/mL): H = 715.52, EA = NR, Me = 268.39, Physostigmine (control) = 0.06 | [142] |
| Fr | H, EA, Me | IC50 (µg/mL): H = NR, EA = 2.92, Me = 9.56, Physostigmine (control) = 0.06 | |||
| Xylocarpus granatum J. Koenig | NI | NI | Antioxidant- DPPH (In vitro) | IC50 (µM) = 3.3 ± 0.3 | [147] |
| Antioxidant- 15LOX (In vitro) | IC50 (µM) = 9 ± 1 | ||||
| Anticancer (In vitro) | IC50 (µM) of 16.93 against CaCo-2 colon cancer cell line | ||||
| B | Me | Antidiarrheal (In vivo) | Significant activity at doses 250 and 500 mg/kg against castor oil and magnesium sulfate induced murine models | ||
| B, L, Fr | E | Antidiarrheal- Castor oil induced diarrheal model (In vivo) | Active | ||
| Sb | E | Antimicrobial- Agar disc diffusion (In vitro) | Active against EC, ETA, PA, ST, SA VC, and KP | [104] |
Ac = Acetone, A = Alcohol, AA = Acinetobacter anitratus, AAE = Ascorbic acid equivalent, ABTS = 2, 2-azino-bis-3-ethyl benzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid radical scavenging, AC = Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, AChE = Acetylcholinesterase, AEAC = Ascorbic acid equivalents per gram sample, AGT = Agrobacterium tumefaciens, AF = Aspergillus flavus, AFM = Aspergillus fumigatus, AN = Aspergillus niger, AKP = Alkaline phosphatase, ALT = Alanine transaminase, AT = Aspergillus tumefacians, AP = Aerial part, APTT = Activated partial thromboplastin, AS = Acremonium strictum, AST = Aspartateaminotransferase, Aq = Aqueous extract, B = Bark, BL = Bacillus licheniformis, BS = Bacillus subtilis, BC = Bacillus cereus, BHT = Butylated hydroxyl toluene, Bu = Butanol, BuChE = Butyrylcholinesterase, CA = Candida albicans, C = Chloroform, CC = Cytotoxic concentration, CD = Double specific activity, CE = Crude extract, CN = Cryptococcus neoformans, COX = Cyclooxigenase, CT = Condensed tannin, CS = Citrobacter sp, DPPH = 1-diphenyl-2-picryhydrazyl, E = Ethanol, EA = Ethyl acetateextract, EE =Ethyl ester, ETA = Enterobacter aerogenes, EC = Escherichia coli,EF = Enterococcus faecalis, ENA = Enterobacter aerogenes, EC50 = Effective concentration 50, ED50 = Effective dose 50,EMVC = Encephalmyocarditis virus, ETA = Enterobacter aerogenes, FBG = Fast blood glucose, Fr = Fruit, FRAP = Ferric reducing antioxidant power, GaIN = D-galactosamine, H = Hexane extract, HBV = Hepatitis B virus, HIV = Human immunodeficiency virus, HL-60 = Human leukaemic 60, HO = Hydroxyl, HT = Hydrolysable tannin, Hy = Hypocotyl, IC50 = Inhibitory concentration 50, KP = Klebsiella pneumonia, KS = Klebsiella sp, L = Leaf, LA = Lactobacillus acidophilus, LD = Lactobacillus delbrueckii, LDV = Leishmania donovani, LOX = lipoxygenase, MDA = Malondialdehyde, Me = Methanol, MIC = Minimun inhibitory concentration, ML = Micrococcus luteus, MTT = 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, MT = Mixed tannin, MTS = Cell proliferation assay, NI = Not indicated, NO = Nitric oxide, NR = No result, PA = Pseudomonas aeruginosa, PE = Petroleum ether extract, PF = Plasmodium falciparum, PM = Proteus mirabilis, PT = Prothrombin time, PSF = Pseudomanas fluorescens, PV = Proteus vulgaris, PS = Proteus sp, REMA = Resazurin microtitreassay, R = Root, RPA = Raw pyroligeneous acid, RR = Rhodotorula rubra, S = Seed, SA = Staphylococcus aureus, Sb = Stem bark, SE = Staphylococcus epidermidis, SF = Shigella flexneri, SFV = Semliki forest virus, SI = Selective index (CC50/EC50), SC = Staphylococcus cerevisiae, SD = Shigella dysenteriae, SM = Serratia marcesens, SP = Salmonella paratyphi, SS = Staphylococcus saprophyticus, ST = Salmonella typhi, STF = Streptococcus faecalis, STM = Streptococcus mutans, STP = Streptococcus pyogenes, STZ = Streptozotocin, STS = Streptococcus salivarius, St = Stem, SO = Superoxide, TC = Trypanosoma cruzi, TEAC = mg of Trolox equivalents per gram sample, TR = Tricophyton rubrum, VC = Vibrio cholera, VC = Vibrio mimicus, YE = Yersinia enterocolitica.