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. 2019 May 9;13:153. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00153

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Copyright © 2019 Toyama, Katahira and Ohira.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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The two-step task used in the experiment (left panel) and its outcome design (right panel). Two stages were included in each trial. The first stage started with one of the two states: state A, which included two rockets, or state B, which included two other rockets. The participants selected one of the two rockets, which deterministically led to a specific second-stage state (action 1 to State C and action 2 to State D). After the subject pressed the spacebar key in the second-stage state, the outcome reward was displayed as an integer point value ranging from 1 to 9. This point value changed slowly and independently according to Gaussian random walks, but the same values applied to all participants.