Table 1.
Effects of malnutrition during pregnancy on adverse offspring outcomes in human cohort studies.
| Nutritional Risk Factors | Outcome | Offspring Number | Age at Measure (Year) | Country | Cohort Study |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Undernutrition | |||||
| Undernutrition | Hypertension, impaired glucose tolerance, and overweight | 1339 | 40 | Nigeria | Biafran famine study [15] |
| Undernutrition | Coronary heart disease, hyperlipidemia, obesity, obstructive airways disease, and microalbuminuria | 741 | 50 | Netherlands | Dutch famine study [16] |
| Undernutrition | Overweight, type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, and metabolic syndrome | 1029–8973 | 55 | China | China great leap forward famine study [17] |
| Undernutrition | Elevation of blood pressure | 359 | 59 | Netherlands | Dutch famine study [18] |
| Low vitamin B12 | Insulin resistance | 653 | 6 | India | PMNS [19] |
| Low vitamin B12 | Impaired cognition function | 118 | 9 | India | PMNS [20] |
| Vitamin D deficiency | Elevation of blood pressure | 1834 | 5–6 | Netherlands | ABCD [21] |
| Vitamin D deficiency | Elevation of blood pressure | 3525 | 9.9 | United Kingdom | ALSPAC [22] |
| Overnutrition | |||||
| Free sugar intake | Atopy and asthma | 8956 | 7–9 | United Kingdom | ALSPAC [23] |
| High-protein, low-carbohydrate diet | Elevation of blood pressure | 253 | 40 | Scotland | Aberdeen maternity hospital study [24] |
| High-protein, low-carbohydrate diet | Elevation of blood pressure | 626 | 30 | Scotland | Motherwell study [25] |
| High-protein intake | Elevation of blood pressure | 434 | 20 | Denmark | DaFO88 [26] |
| High-fat diet | Obesity | 965 | 20 | Denmark | Aarhus birth cohort study [27] |
Studies tabulated according to nutritional risk factor and age at measure. ABCD, Amsterdam born children and their development; ALSPAC, the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children; CHDS, child health and development studies; CPP, the collaborative perinatal project pregnancy cohort; DaFO88 = Danish fetal origins cohort; MUSP, Mater University study of pregnancy and its outcomes; PMNS, Pune maternal nutrition study.