Table 1.
Baseline Characteristics of New Long-acting Opioid Users for Selected Variables of Interesta by Treatment Group, Tennessee Medicaid (1995–2015)
| Nonimmunosuppressive (N = 22811) |
Immunosuppressive (N = 61240) |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, y | ||||
| Mean (SD) | 49.1 | (15.3) | 53.7 | (17.3) |
| Median (IQR) | 48.0 | (21.0) | 51.0 | (23.0) |
| Characteristics | No. | (%) | No. | (%) |
| Sex | ||||
| Female | 13760 | (60.3) | 39233 | (64.1) |
| Race | ||||
| White | 18134 | (79.5) | 49090 | (80.2) |
| Black | 2109 | (9.3) | 5818 | (9.5) |
| Hispanic/Asian/Other | 2568 | (11.3) | 6332 | (10.3) |
| Selected comorbidities | ||||
| Cardiovascular diseaseb | 2237 | (9.8) | 7162 | (11.7) |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 3156 | (13.8) | 9835 | (16.1) |
| Diabetes | 3315 | (14.5) | 9857 | (16.1) |
| Hypertension | 6266 | (27.5) | 18965 | (31.0) |
| Infection history | 8269 | (36.3) | 23755 | (38.8) |
| Lipid disorders | 2119 | (9.3) | 6501 | (10.6) |
| Peripheral artery disease | 2305 | (10.1) | 7003 | (11.4) |
| Tobacco use | 732 | (3.2) | 1835 | (3.0) |
| Selected pain or pain-inducing conditions | ||||
| Abdominal pain | 1549 | (6.8) | 4391 | (7.2) |
| Back pain | 8356 | (36.6) | 25342 | (41.4) |
| Dental pain | 259 | (1.1) | 519 | (0.8) |
| External causes of injury | 882 | (3.9) | 2253 | (3.7) |
| Musculoskeletal pain | 7402 | (32.4) | 21516 | (35.1) |
| Neuropathic pain | 1805 | (7.9) | 5716 | (9.3) |
| Pain not specified | 1349 | (5.9) | 3649 | (6.0) |
| Trauma | 2857 | (12.5) | 6840 | (11.2) |
| Selected medication use history | ||||
| Short-acting hydrocodone | 5667 | (24.8) | 19082 | (31.2) |
| Short-acting oxycodone | 3323 | (14.6) | 6724 | (11.0) |
| Other short-acting opioids | 5294 | (23.2) | 12606 | (20.6) |
| More than one short-acting opioid | 8527 | (37.4) | 22828 | (37.3) |
| Antibiotics | 16252 | (91.2) | 45231 | (73.9) |
| Antifungals | 2795 | (12.3) | 8266 | (13.5) |
| Antipsychotics | 2493 | (10.9) | 9902 | (16.2) |
| Benzodiazepines | 10842 | (47.5) | 30335 | (49.5) |
| Bronchodilators, beta agonist | 5444 | (23.9) | 15682 | (25.6) |
| Bronchodilators, other | 2822 | (12.4) | 9297 | (15.2) |
| Diabetes, hypoglycemic medications | 3253 | (14.3) | 9634 | (15.7) |
| Diabetes, insulin | 1728 | (7.6) | 5708 | (9.3) |
| Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs | 440 | (1.9) | 1214 | (2.0) |
| Influenza vaccine | 3230 | (14.2) | 10041 | (16.4) |
| Glucocorticoids | 9826 | (43.1) | 27859 | (45.5) |
| Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs | 13361 | (58.6) | 35402 | (57.8) |
| Pneumococcal vaccine | 534 | (2.3) | 1657 | (2.7) |
| Proton pump inhibitors | 6675 | (29.3) | 21566 | (35.2) |
| Sedatives | 2982 | (13.1) | 9114 | (14.9) |
| Selected frailty indicators | ||||
| Ambulation devices | 1553 | (6.8) | 5080 | (8.3) |
| Continuous/bilevel positive airway pressure | 738 | (3.2) | 2303 | (3.8) |
| Decubitus/pressure ulcers | 719 | (3.2) | 2929 | (4.8) |
| Enteral and parenteral nutrition | 235 | (1.0) | 1234 | (2.0) |
| Impaired mobility | 321 | (1.4) | 895 | (1.5) |
| Incontinence | 530 | (2.3) | 1982 | (3.2) |
| Oxygen supplementation | 1316 | (5.8) | 4445 | (7.3) |
| Rehabilitation | 909 | (4.0) | 2177 | (3.6) |
| Healthcare utilization | ||||
| ED visits in prior year | ||||
| 0 | 10172 | (44.6) | 27984 | (45.7) |
| 1 | 5566 | (24.4) | 15096 | (24.7) |
| 2 | 2837 | (12.4) | 7361 | (12.0) |
| ≥ 3 | 4236 | (18.6) | 10799 | (17.6) |
| Outpatient visits in past year | ||||
| 0 | 10270 | (45.0) | 26095 | (42.6) |
| 1 | 4166 | (18.3) | 10798 | (17.6) |
| 2 | 4135 | (18.1) | 11812 | (19.3) |
| ≥ 3 | 4240 | (18.6) | 12535 | (20.5) |
| Hospitalizations in past year | ||||
| 0 | 18297 | (80.2) | 46788 | (76.4) |
| 1 | 3944 | (17.3) | 12364 | (20.2) |
| ≥ 2 | 570 | (2.5) | 2088 | (3.4) |
Abbreviations: ED, emergency department; IQR, interquartile range; PS, propensity-score; SD, standard deviation.
aFull list of covariates is included in Supplementary Table S4.
bCardiovascular disease is an indication of at least one of the following: heart failure, acute myocardial infarction, carotid revascularization, coronary heart disease (ie, angina, coronary revascularization, stents, use of long-acting nitrates), cor pulmonale, and congenital heart defects.