| Red blood cell |
• Slightly shortened red cell life span, reduced membrane surface area, and a dramatically reduced osmotic water permeability |
[2] |
| Kidney |
• Inability to generate a hypertonic medullary interstitium by countercurrent multiplication |
[4,8–13,18,20] |
|
• Impairment in the migration of proximal tubule cells and cell proliferation after acute kiney injury |
[14,15] |
|
• Lower glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow |
[16] |
| Brain |
• Protective in a model of brain trauma |
[22–26] |
|
• Reduced thermal inflammatory pain perception evoked by bradykinin, prostaglandin E2, and capsaicin as well as reduced cold pain perception and distinct electrophysiological defects |
[27–31] |
| The lungs |
• Changed permeability in different degree in different part |
[32,33] |
| Placenta |
• Lower number of embryos, lower fetal weight |
[37–39] |
| Fetal membranes |
• Increased amniotic fluid volume and reduced osmolality |
[40,41] |
| Peritoneum |
• Significantly reduced osmotically induced water movement, strongly decreased indices for AQP1-related transcellular water transport |
[42–44] |
| Eye |
• Reduced corneal thickness, reduces osmotic water permeability across the corneal endothelium, impaired keratocyte migration |
[45,46] |
|
• Accelerated cataract formation |
[47,48] |
| Gland secretion |
• Reduced prohormone convertase 1/3, carboxypeptidase E, attenuated regulated secretion of ACTH, decreased dense-core secretory granule (DCSG) proteins biogenesis |
[49] |
| Cardiovascular system |
• Marked microcardia, decreased myocyte transverse dimensions and a significant decrease in the thickness of the arterial walls both in the aorta and mesenteric artery |
[54] |
|
• Promoted atherosclerosis |
[55] |
| Digestive system |
• Acquired an oily appearance, manifested serum hypotriglyceridemia and developed steatorrhea with increased stool triglyceride content, and greater lipase activity |
[58] |
| Cellular level |
• Reduced angiogenesis, impaired cell migration, abnormal vessel formation, and abnormal microvascular anatomy |
[61,63,64] |
|
• Reduced relative plasma membrane water permeability in chondrocyte |
[62] |
